Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures, Third Edition

IntroductionGeneral     1Geography     3Ecological Environment     4Legal Jurisdiction     4Offshore Construction Relationships and Sequences     5Typical Marine Structures and Contracts     8Interaction of Design and Construction     9Physical Environmental Aspects of Marine and Offshore ConstructionGeneral     15Distances and Depths     15Hydrostatic Pressure and Buoyancy     16Temperature     17Seawater and Sea-Air Interface Chemistry     18Marine Organisms     18Currents     20Waves and Swells     25Winds and Storms     31Tides and Storm Surges     34Rain, Snow, Fog, Spray, Atmospheric Icing, and Lightning     36Sea Ice and Icebergs     37Seismicity, Seaquakes, and Tsunamis     42Floods     43Scour     44Siltation and Bed Loads     44Sabotage and Terrorism     45Ship Traffic     45Fire and Smoke     46Accidental Events     46Global Warming     47Geotechnical Aspects: Seafloor andMarine SoilsGeneral     49Dense Sands     52Liquefaction of Soils     52Calcareous Sands     53Glacial Till and Boulders on Seafloor     53Overconsolidated Silts     54Subsea Permafrost and Clathrates     55Weak Arctic Silts and Clays     56Ice Scour and Pingos     56Methane Gas     56Muds and Clays     56Underwater Slopes in Clays     57Pile Driving "Set-Up"     58Short-Term Bearing Strength     58Dredging     58Sampling     58Penetration     59Consolidation of Clays; Improvement in Strength     59Coral and Similar Biogenic Soils; Cemented Soils, Cap Rock     59Unconsolidated Sands     60Underwater Sand Dunes ("Megadunes")     62Bedrock Outcrops     62Cobbles     63Deep Gravel Deposits     64Seafloor Oozes     64Seafloor Instability and Slumping; Turbidity Currents     64Scour and Erosion     65Concluding Remarks     66Ecological and Societal Impacts of Marine ConstructionGeneral      69Oil and Petroleum Products     69Toxic Chemicals     70Contaminated Soils     71Construction Wastes     71Turbidity     71Sediment Transport, Scour, and Erosion     72Air Pollution     72Marine Life: Mammals and Birds, Fish, and Other Biota     73Aquifers     74Noise     74Highway, Rail, Barge, and Air Traffic     75Protection of Existing Structures     75Liquefaction     77Safety of the Public and Third-Party Vessels     77Archaeological Concerns     78Materials and Fabrication for Marine StructuresGeneral     79Steel Structures for the Marine Environment     79Steel Materials     80Fabrication and Welding     80Erection of Structural Steel     85Coatings and Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures     88High Performance Steels     91Structural Concrete     91General     91Concrete Mixes and Properties     91High Performance Concrete- "Flowing Concrete"     95Structural Low-Density Concrete      96Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC)     97Conveyance and Placement of Concrete     97Curing     98Steel Reinforcement     98Prestressing Tendons and Accessories     102Embedments     105Coatings for Marine Concrete     106Construction Joints     106Forming and Support     107Tolerances     108Hybrid Steel-Concrete Structures     108Hybrid Structures     109Composite Construction     109Plastics and Synthetic Materials, Composites     111Titanium     113Rock, Sand, and Asphaltic-Bituminous Materials     114Marine and Offshore Construction EquipmentGeneral     117Basic Motions in a Seaway     118Buoyancy, Draft, and Freeboard     120Stability     121Damage Control     124Barges     126Crane Barges     130Offshore Derrick Barges (Fully Revolving)     134Semisubmersible Barges     137Jack-Up Construction Barges     140Launch Barges     144Catamaran Barges     146Dredges      147Pipe-Laying Barges     152Supply Boats     155Anchor-Handling Boats     156Towboats     156Drilling Vessels     157Crew Boats     158Floating Concrete Plant     158Tower Cranes     159Specialized Equipment     160Marine OperationsTowing     161Moorings and Anchors     169Mooring Lines     169Anchors     170Drag Anchors     170Pile Anchors     174Propellant Anchors     174Suction Anchors     175Driven-Plate Anchors     175Mooring Systems     175Handling Heavy Loads at Sea     183General     183Personnel Transfer at Sea     190Underwater Intervention, Diving, Underwater Work Systems, Remote-Operated Vehicles (ROVs), and Manipulators     194Diving     194Remote-Operated Vehicles (ROVs)     201Manipulators     203Underwater Concreting and Grouting     203General     203Underwater Concrete Mixes     204Placement of Tremie Concrete      205Special Admixtures for Concreting Underwater     209Grout-Intruded Aggregate     212Pumped Concrete and Mortar     213Underbase Grout     213Grout for Transfer of Forces from Piles to Sleeves and Jacket Legs     215Low-Strength Underwater Concrete     215Summary     215Offshore Surveying, Navigation, and Seafloor Surveys     216Temporary Buoyancy Augmentation     223Seafloor Modifications and ImprovementsGeneral     225Controls for Grade and Position     226Determination of Existing Conditions     226Seafloor Dredging, Obstruction Removal, and Leveling     227Dredging and Removal of Hard Material and Rock     235Placement of Underwater Fills     240Consolidation and Strengthening of Weak Soils     245Prevention of Liquefaction     248Scour Protection     248Concluding Remarks     252Installation of Piles in Marine and Offshore StructureGeneral     255Fabrication of Tubular Steel Piles     259Transportation of Piling     260Installing Piles     262Methods of Increasing Penetration     285Insert Piles     290Anchoring into Rock or Hardpan     291Testing High Capacity Piles     292Steel H Piles     293Enhancing Stiffness and Capacity of Piles     293Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Piles     294Handling and Positioning of Piles for Offshore Terminals     296Drilled and Grouted Piles     297Cast-in-Drilled-Hole Piles, Drilled Shafts     302Other Installation Experience     312Installation in Difficult Soils     312Other Methods of Improving the Capacity of Driven Piles     313Slurry Walls, Secant Walls, and Tangent Walls     315Steel Sheet Piles     316Vibratory Pile Hammers     317Micropiles     317Harbor, River, and Estuary StructuresGeneral     319Harbor Structures     319Types     319Pile-Supported Structures     319Steel Piles     319Concrete Piles     320Installation     320Batter (Raker) Piles     322Pile Location     323Jetting     323Driving Through Obstructions or Very Hard Material     323Staying of Piles      324Head Connections     325Concrete Deck     326Fender System     327Bulkheads, Quay Walls     327Description     327Sheet Pile Bulkheads     327Caisson Quay Walls     330River Structures     331Description     331Sheet Pile Cellular Structures     331"Lift-In" Precast Concrete Shells-"In-the-Wet" Construction     335Float-In Concrete Structures     336General     336Prefabrication     337Launching     338Installation     339Leveling Pads     339Underfill     340Foundations for Overwater Bridge Piers     343General     343Open Caissons     344Pneumatic Caissons     345Gravity-Base Caissons (Box Caissons)     346Pile-Supported Box Caissons     357Large-Diameter Tubular Piles     360Steel Tubular Piles     360Prestressed Concrete Tubular Piles     367Connection of Piles to Footing Block (Pile Cap)     370CIDH Drilled Shafts (Piles)      371Cofferdams     371Steel Sheet Pile Cofferdams     372Liquefaction During Cofferdam Construction     375Cofferdams on Slope     376Deep Cofferdams     376Portable Cofferdams     378Protective Structures for Bridge Piers     378Belled Piers     379Submerged Prefabricated Tunnels (Tubes)     381Description     381Prefabrication of Steel-Concrete Composite Tunnel Segments     382Prefabrication of All-Concrete Tube Segments     383Preparation of Trench     384Installing the Segments     385Underfill and Backfill     386Portal Connections     386Pile-Supported Tunnels     386Submerged Floating Tunnels     387Storm Surge Barriers     387Description     387Venice Storm Surge Barrier     388Oosterschelde Storm Surge Barrier     389Flow-Control Structures     397Description     397Temperature Control Devices     397Coastal StructuresGeneral     399Ocean Outfalls and Intakes     399Breakwaters      408General     408Rubble-Mound Breakwaters     408Caisson-Type Breakwaters and Caisson-Retained Islands     414Sheet Pile Cellular Breakwaters     415Offshore Terminals     416Offshore Platforms: Steel Jackets and Pin PilesGeneral     433Fabrication of Steel Jackets     434Load-Out, Tie-Down, and Transport     435Removal of Jacket from Transport Barge; Lifting; Launching     444Upending of Jacket     452Installation on the Seafloor     455Pile and Conductor Installation     458Deck Installation     461Examples     464Example 1-Hondo     464Example 2-Cognac     472Example 3-Cerveza     476Concrete Offshore Platforms: Gravity-Base StructuresGeneral     479Stages of Construction     483Stage 1-Construction Basin     483Stage 2-Construction of Base Raft     487Stage 3-Float-Out     490Stage 4-Mooring at Deep-Water Construction Site     491Stage 5-Construction at Deep-Water Site     492Stage 6-Shaft Construction     501Stage 7-Towing to Deep-Water Mating Site      505Stage 8-Construction of Deck Structure     505Stage 9-Deck Transport     507Stage 10-Submergence of Substructure for Deck Mating     509Stage 11-Deck Mating     510Stage 12-Hookup     513Stage 13-Towing to Installation Site     513Stage 14-Installation at Site     514Stage 15-Installation of Conductors     524Alternative Concepts for Construction     525Sub-Base Construction     529Platform Relocation     530Hybrid Concrete-Steel Platforms     530Permanently Floating StructuresGeneral     533Fabrication of Concrete Floating Structures     537Concrete Properties of Special Importance to Floating Structures     540Construction and Launching     541Floating Concrete Bridges     544Floating Tunnels     544Semi-Submersibles     545Barges     545Floating Airfields     547Structures for Permanently Floating Service     548Marinas     549Piers for Berthing Large Ships     549Floating Breakwaters     549Mating Afloat     549Other Applications of Marine and Offshore Construction TechnologyGeneral     553Single-Point Moorings     554Articulated Columns     557Seafloor Templates     566Underwater Oil Storage Vessels     572Cable Arrays, Moored Buoys, and Seafloor Deployment     573Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion     574Offshore Export and Import Terminals for Cryogenic Gas-LNG and LPG     576General     576Offshore Wind-Power Foundations     580Wave-Power Structures     580Tidal Power Stations     581Barrier Walls     581Breakwaters     582Installation of Submarine PipelinesGeneral     583Conventional S-Lay Barge     586Bottom-Pull Method     603Reel Barge     610Surface Float     612Controlled Underwater Flotation (Controlled Subsurface Float)     613Controlled Above-Bottom Pull     613J-Tube Method from Platform     615J-Lay from Barge     615S-Curve with Collapsible Floats     616Bundled Pipes     616Directional Drilling (Horizontal Drilling)     616Laying Under Ice      617Protection of Pipelines: Burial and Covering with Rock     617Support of Pipelines     624Cryogenic Pipelines for LNG and LPG     625Plastic and Composite Pipelines and CablesSubmarine Pipelines of Composite Materials and Plastics     627High Density Polyethylene Pipelines     627Fiber-Reinforced Glass Pipes     629Composite Flexible Pipelines and Risers     630Cable Laying     631Topside InstallationGeneral     633Module Erection     633Hookup     636Giant Modules and Transfer of Complete Deck     637Float-Over Deck Structures     638Delivery and Installation     638Hi-Deck Method     640French "Smart" System     640The Wandoo Platform     641Other Methods     641Repairs to Marine StructuresGeneral     643Principles Governing Repairs     644Repairs to Steel Structures     645Repairs to Corroded Steel Members     648Repairs to Concrete Structures     648Repairs to Foundations     653Fire Damage     655Pipeline Repairs      655Strengthening Existing StructuresGeneral     659Strengthening of Offshore Platforms, Terminals, Members and Assemblies     659Increasing Capacity of Existing Piles for Axial Loads     660Increasing Lateral Capacity of Piles and Structures in Soil-Structure Interaction     666Penetrations Through Concrete Walls     667Seismic Retrofit     669Removal and SalvageRemoval of Offshore Platforms     671Removal of Piled Structures (Terminals, Trestles, Shallow-Water Platforms)     672Removal of Pile-Supported Steel Platforms     673Removal of Concrete Gravity: Base Offshore Platforms     676New Developments in Salvage Techniques     679Removal of Harbor Structures     679Removal of Coastal Structures     680ConstructibilityGeneral     681Construction Stages for Offshore Structures     682Principles of Constructibility     686Facilities and Methods for Fabrication     687Launching     687Launch Barges     687Lifting for Transport     688Construction in a Graving Dock or Drydock     688Construction in a Basin     688Launching from a Ways or a Launch Barge      689Sand Jacking     690Rolling-In     691Jacking Down     691Barge Launching by Ballasting     691Assembly and Jointing Afloat     692Material Selection and Procedures     693Construction Procedures     695Access     701Tolerances     702Survey Control     703Quality Control and Assurance     704Safety     705Control of Construction: Feedback and Modification     706Contingency Planning     707Manuals     708On-Site Instruction Sheets     710Risk and Reliability Evaluation     711Construction in the Deep SeaGeneral     717Considerations and Phenomena for Deep-Sea Operations     718Techniques for Deep-Sea Construction     719Properties of Materials for the Deep Sea     721Platforms in the Deep Sea: Compliant Structures     726Description     726Guyed Towers     727Compliant (Flexible) Tower     730Articulated Towers     733Tension-Leg Platforms (TLP's)     733SPARS      735Ship-Shaped FPSOs     735Deep-Water Moorings     736Construction Operations on the Deep Seafloor     740Deep-Water Pipe Laying     743Seafloor Well Completions     746Deep-Water Bridge Piers     746Arctic Marine StructuresGeneral     751Sea Ice and Icebergs     752Atmospheric Conditions     755Arctic Seafloor and Geotechnics     756Oceanographic     758Ecological Considerations     759Logistics and Operations     760Earthwork in the Arctic Offshore     762Ice Structures     766Steel and Concrete Structures for the Arctic     768Steel Tower Platforms     768Caisson-Retained Islands     768Shallow-Water Gravity-Base Caissons     769Jack-Up Structures     770Bottom-Founded Deep-Water Structures     770Floating Structures     772Well Protectors and Seafloor Templates     773Deployment of Structures in the Arctic     774Installation at Site     776Ice Condition Surveys and Ice Management     786Durability      787Constructibility     789Pipeline Installation     790Current Arctic Developments     791References     793Index     797