Muslims as Actors: Islamic Meanings and Muslim Interpretations in the Perspective of the Study of Religions

Preface     VIntroduction     1Some Biographical Notes     1The Present Book     17Some Perspectives     20Selected Literature     21Two QuestionsCan the Science of Religion Render Service to the Study of Islam?     25Islamic Studies in Context     25Studying Islam as a Religion     27The Science of Religion Contributing to the Study of Islam     29The Term "Islam"     29Objective and Subjective Meanings     30Statements on Islam Studied as Interpretations of Islam     31Ways of Interpreting and Constructing Islam     32Islam Viewed as the Order of Creation     33Islam Studied as an Interpretative System that is itself Continuously Interpreted     34Studying Constructions of Islam     34Variety of Constructions     35Claims of Universality     35Cultural Heyday of Islam     36Islam under Construction     36Selected Literature: The Study of Religions     37Can We Study Islam as a Signification System?     40Introduction     40The Concept of a Signification System     41Subjective Meanings     42Interest in Meanings     45Islam Studied as a Signification System     46The Proposed Approach Summarized     48Selected Literature: Islamic Studies     50Issues in Islamic StudiesIslamic Studies and the Study of Religions and Cultures     55Introduction     55Islamic Studies and the Historical Study of Religions     58Islamic Studies and the Comparative Study of Religious Data     62Islamic Studies and Discussions on Method and Theory in the Study of Religions     66Studying Religious Aspects of Islam     70Some Basic Distinctions     72The Study of "Religion" in Islamic Studies     74The Role of Religion in Muslim Societies     79The Role of Religion in Inspiring Muslim Spirituality     80Conclusion     81Selected Literature     82Some Social Scientific Orientations in Islamic Studies     86Introduction     86The Humanities     88The Social Sciences     90Social Scientific Research on Muslim Societies since World War II     92Anthropology     93Sociology     95Political Science     97A Plea for Impartial Research on Religion and Politics     97Contributions of the Social Sciences to Islamic Studies     99Theoretical Contributions     99Empirical Contributions     101Representing Islam as a Religion     103Conclusion     104Selected Literature     106Islamic Studies and Intercultural Relations     108Introduction     108Some Contexts of Islamic Studies Before 1950     109Rapid Survey of Historical Contexts     110Politics     112Religion     113Education     115Islamic Studies in Context     116Islamic Studies     116Modern Trends in Islam     117Muslim Apologetics and Criticism of Islamic Studies     119Muslims in the West     122Islam in the West     122Muslims in Colonial Societies     123Muslims in Western Societies     124Differentiation in Islamic Studies     125Academic Islamic Studies     125Muslim "Study of Islam"     128Conclusion     131Personal Reflections on an Anti-Cultural World     134Selected Literature     136Intercultural Relations and Islam     136Muslim Discovery of Europe     137Muslims in Europe and North America     137The Muslim World and the Western World     139Presuppositions and Assumptions in Islamic Studies     141Introduction     141Presuppositions and Assumptions     141Presuppositions     143Assumptions     145Islamic Studies     147Presuppositions and Assumptions in Islamic Studies     148Selected Literature     151General Approaches and Methods     151Interpretative Approaches     153The Practice of Islamic Studies in HistoryMassignon as a Student of Islam (1883-1962)     157Louis Massignon. Life and Work     158Spirituality     159Research     159Politics     161Legacy     163Research on Islam as a Religion     163Al-Hallaj     164Islam     165Dedication     166Impact on Islamic Studies     168Immediate Influences     168Impact on Islamic Studies     171Three Groups of Followers     171Catholic Orientalists     171Muslim Intellectuals     174Arab Christians     175A Scholar's Mind     176Conclusion     179Selected Literature     182Bio-bibliography     182Scholarly Publications     183More Personal Writings     185Main Publications about Louis Massignon     185Some Developments and Trends in Islamic Studies Since 1950     189Looking Back on Islamic Studies     189The Study of Early Islamic History     193Studying Muhammad in his Society     193The Qur'an Studied as Text     194Hadith Studies     197The Medinan Period     198Islamic Thought and Spirituality     198Historical Encounters between Islam and Other Civilizations and Religions     200Observing Islamic Studies     202Studying Muslim Societies     202Scholarly Procedures     204Islamic Studies: Changes     206Changes in Perspective and New Orientations of Study     206Looking Forward in Islamic Studies      208Scholars of Islamic Studies     210Contexts of Islamic Studies     211Selected Literature: Some Subjects of Research Since 1950     213History of Islamic Studies as a Field     213Early Islamic History     214The Rise of Islam     214Muhammad     215Qur'anic Studies     215Hadith Studies     216Early History and Historiography     216Islamic Thought and Spirituality     217Medieval and Later     217Contemporary     218Encounters with Other Civilizations     218Encounters with the West and Christianity     218Encounters with Other Cultures and Religions than the Western Ones     219Recent Scholarly Presentations of Islam     221Introduction     221Wilfred Cantwell Smith: Conceptualization in Islam and in Islamic Studies     223Gustave E. von Grunebaum: Islam as Medieval Culture     229Annemarie Schimmel: Islam as Deciphering the Signs     231Seyyed Hossein Nasr: Islam as "Traditional" Islam     235Mohammed Arkoun: Rethinking Islam     243Conclusion     249Selected Literature: Bibliography, Books on Islam, Articles, Discussion and Research     251Arkoun, Mohammed     251Grunebaum, Gustave E. von     253Nasr, Seyyed Hossein     256Schimmel, Annemarie     257Smith, Wilfred Cantwell     259Islamic and Religious Studies under the Conditions of the Cold War     262Conflicts and Ideological Distortions     262Two Opposing Views of Islam     263The USSR     264The West     266Islamic Studies     267Some Corrections Imposed on Distorted Views of Islam     268A Visit to the USSR     271The Study of Religions in East and West     275Conclusion     279Selected Literature     280Studying ReligionsReligions as a Subject of Empirical Research     285Issues of Research at the Beginning     285The Attraction of a Science of Religion     287Some Western Views and Constructs of the Study of Religion     288Empirical Research into Religion     289Schemes of Interpretation of Religion     290Religion as an (Un)known Subject of Study     291Development of Theoretical Thinking     292Explanatory Theory      293Hermeneutic Orientations     294Conclusion     295Selected Literature     297History of the Field     297Some Questions of Method and Theory     300Classical Phenomenology of Religion in the Netherlands 1920-1950     302The Problem     303Image Formation of Religions Before the Phenomenological Movement     305Image Formation in Classical Phenomenology of Religion     307Image Formation of Particular Religions Among Dutch Phenomenologists     309The Presentation of Religion in Dutch Classical Phenomenology of Religion     312Classical Phenomenology of Religion and the Emancipation of 'Religionswissenschaft'     314Classical Phenomenology of Religion: Aims and Results     316The Context of the Phenomenology of Religion in the Netherlands 1918-1939     321G. van der Leeuw's Conceptualization of Religion     323Conclusion     324Selected Literature     325Eliade as a Student of Religion (1907-1986)     331Mircea Eliade. Life and Work     331Biographical data     331Eliade Studying Religion     335The Study of Religions. Construct and Reality      338The Study of Religions up to Eliade     339Some Critical Remarks on Eliade's Approach     341Conceptualizing Religion after Eliade     342Eliade's Time and Ours     345Selected Literature     349Bio-bibliography     349Main Publications in English, with Years of their First Appearance     350Some Monographs about Eliade     352Some Collective Works about Eliade     353Some Articles about Eliade     354Some Contexts of Eliade's Work     355Muslims and Their IslamBelievers in Focus. Exploring Muslim Life     359Believers as Potential Actors     359A Philosophical Intermezzo. Meaning and Significance     362Significance and Subjective Meanings     365Research on Subjective Meanings     368Toward Understanding Subjective Meanings. Intentions     370Conclusion     372Selected Literature     373Muslim Life     373Islam in Literature     374Ethics, Justice, and Human Rights in Islam     374Encounters Between Believers     375Believers' Identities     376Religion in the World      376Islamic Reform and Renewal. Recourse to Scripture     377Introduction     377Kinds of Reform and Forces Opposing It     378The Term "Reform": Three Meanings     378Three Kinds of Movements of Reform     379Religions Developed from Reform Movements     381Social Reforms and Religion     383Forces Opposing Reform     384Islamic Reform and the Shari`a     386Studying Reformers and Reform     388Reflecting on the Notion of Reform     390A Note on Reading Scriptures     392Religious Readings     392Literary and Historical Interpretations     393Common Structures of the Scriptural Religions     395Common Structures Around the Scriptures     396Reform Movements and their Reading of Scripture     397Selected Literature     398Initiatives to Reform and Renewal in Islam Before 1970     398Present-Day Thinking on Renewal of Islam     399Reinterpretations of Islam in Terms of Reform     401Islamic Resurgence and Politics     402Islam in/and the West     403Worldwide Islam     404Ideas and Developments in Contemporary Islam     405Situation and Future of Women     406Situation and Role of Religious Authorities     407Some Subjects of Current debate     407A Note on Reading Scriptures     408Scripture in general     408Scriptures in Judaism, Christianity and Islam     408Scripture in Islam     409New Kinds of Muslim Qur'an Exegesis, Reading, and Interpretation     409Some Studies about New Kinds of Muslim Qur'an Interpretation     410Further Reading (Bibliography)Middle Eastern Responses to Islamic Studies. The Orientalism Debate     413Religion(s) and the Study of Religion(s)     421The Concept of Religion     421Discussions around a Science of Religion. Method and Explanatory Theory     422Anthropology of Religion     431Comparative-Historical Research     433Sociology and Psychology of Religion     436Interpretative Studies of Religion     436The Phenomenology Debate     436Scholarly Hermeneutic Orientations     441Some Comprehensive Reflections     446Gender and the Study of Religion     447Gender and Religion in General     447Gender and Islam      449The Study of Religion(s) in Various Countries     451Islamic Studies in Various Countries     456IndexesIndex of Persons     460Index of Subjects     463Index of Concepts (Problem-Oriented)     468