Occupied America: A History of Chicanos

Preface     xviNot Just Pyramids, Explorers, and Heroes     1The Cradles of Civilization     2The Corn People     2The Olmeca 1500 BC-500 BC     3The Maya     5Maya Hieroglyphic Writing     6Maya Society     6The Decline of Mayan Civilization     7Teotihuacan     8Urbanism and Trade     8Other Corn Civilizations     9The Tolteca     10The Tarasco     10The Azteca     11En El Norte     13Conclusion: The World System in 1519     15The Core Zones     15The Semi-Peripheral Zones     16The Mesoamerican Periphery     16The Occupation of Middle America     17Africa Begins at the Pyrenees     17The Spanish Conquest     18Faith Versus Rationality     19The Spanish Invasion of the Mexica     19The Colonization of Native Mesoamerica     20Smallpox and Other Plagues     20The Conquest of Race and Labor in Mesoamerica     20Women in Colonial Mesoamerica     22The ChangingRoles of Women     22The Assimilation of Native Women     23Al Norte: God, Gold, Glory, Silver, and Slaves     25The Decline of the Indigenous Population     25The Changing Order     26The Bonanzas     27Forced Labor     27The Northern Corridor     28The Decline of the Native Population     29The Colonization of Texas     30El Paso del Norte     30The Tlaxcalan and the Castas     31The Importance of San Antonio and Links to the Rio Bravo     31The Occupation of Alta California: Paradise Lost     32Los Indios     32The Missions: Myth and Reality     33Conclusion: On the Eve of the Mexican War of Independence     33A Legacy of Hate: The Conquest of Mexico's Northwest     35Mexican Independence from Spain     35The Colonial Legacy     36The Nation-State     36Background to the Invasion of Texas     36Broken Promises     37Causes of the War     37Follow the Money: The Land Companies and Trade     38Wanna-Be Sam Adamses     38The Point of No Return     39The Invasion of Texas     39The Pretext: Myths of the Alamo     40The Defense of the Mexican Homeland     40Mexicans Win the Battles but Lose the War     41The Invasion of Mexico     42The Manufactured War     42An Unwarranted Aggression     43The Pretext for Conquest     43Religious Justifications for War     43History as Propaganda     44The Myth of a Nonviolent Nation     44Peacemakers Expose the Violence of War     45The San Patricio Battalion     46The War Crimes     46Mexicans on the Front Lines     47The Prosecution of the War     47The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo     48The Controversy     48The Deception     49The Honorable Man     50Conclusion     50Remember the Alamo: The Colonization of Texas     52The Years Between 1836 and 1845     53To the Victor Belong the Spoils     53The Border     54The Founding Fathers?     55The Robber Barons Become Captains of Industry      56Social and Political Ostracization and Control     57The Consolidation of Texas Wealth     58Socialization     59The Indian Savage, the Mexican Bandit     59Controlling the Mexicans     59Politics of Race and Gender     61The Resistance     62Runaway Slaves     63Trade Wars     63Social Banditry     64The Case of Juan Cortina     64The People's Revolt     66The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez     66The Transformation     67The Restructuring     67The Railroad and the Advent of Industrial Capitalism     67Mexico Comes to Texas     68Reform Politics and Mexicans     69The Growth of the Mexican Population     69The Growth of Racist Nativism     69Mexican Resistance     70Conclusion     71Freedom in a Cage: The Colonization of New Mexico     73On the Frontier     73The Santa Fe Trail: The Trojan Horse     74Anti-American Sentiment     75The Euroamerican Invasion     75The Taos Revolt      75Inventing Tradition     76The Transition     77The Illusion of Inclusion     78Gringos and Ricos     78How Was It Done?     79The Santa Fe Ring and the Land Grab     80The Lincoln County War     81Socialization     83The Americanization of the Catholic Church     83The New Mexican Diaspora     84It's the Chili     84New Mexico in Colorado     85The Resistance     85The Land Grabbers     86The Village People Defend Their Land     86More Illusions of Inclusion     87The End of the Frontier     88The Growth of Industrial Mining     88Changes in Society     89Federal Encroachment     89Conclusion     90Sonora Invaded: The Occupation of Arizona     91The Frontier     92The Gadsden Purchase     92The Silent War with Sonora     93Filibustering Expeditions into Sonora     93Mexicans in Early Arizona     94Tensions     94"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others."      95Marrying Up!     95The Alliance of Elites     96The War Against the Apache     97The Fate of the "Friendly Indian"     97The Land-Grab Grant     97The Transformation of Arizona     98From Adobe to Copper     98Border Conflicts     99The Industrialization of Arizona     99The Importance of Mining     99The Expansion of Capital     100Industrial Mining     100The 1890s: The De-Skilling of Mine Work     101The Pull Factor     101The Impact of Industrialization on Mexicans     101Mutual Aid Societies     102The Mexican Middle Class     102Small Favors to Women     103Miners Organize: The Emergence of Trade Unions     103It's the Water     103Conclusion     104California Lost: America for Euroamericans     106Indians Count     106The Spanish Occupation     107The Mexican Period     108The Gap Between Classes     108No Utopia! Women and the Transformation of California     109The Bear Flag      109John C. Fremont and the Bear Flag     110U.S. Invasion of California     110Gold Transforms California     111The Gold Rush Creates a Template     111Complicity of the Californios     111Legalized Theft: The Foreign Miners' Tax     112Decline of the Californios     112The Locusts     113Taxation Without Representation     113Marrying White     114The Whitening of California     114Legitimization of Violence     115The Mexican Prostitute     115The American Dream, The Lugos Trial     116The Disillusionment     117El Clamor Publico     117Class Divisions     119Social Banditry     120Tiburcio Vasquez     120Mexicans in a Changing Society     121Becoming a Minority     122The Church's Role     122Labor     123The Exclusion of the Other     123Colonias     123Conclusion     124Immigration, Labor, and Generational Change     126Overview     126The Transformation      127The Push     127The Pull     128Opposition to Diaz     129The Pinos Altos Strike     129Precursors to Revolution     129The Triangle     130Teresa de Urrea     132Disciplining Mexicans: Forty Blonde Babies     132The Mexican Diaspora     132Exploitation Begets Resistance     133The Struggle for Equal Education     134The Mexican Revolution     135A Changing Society     137Mexican Workers Under Siege     137Pancho Villa Drives the Gringos Crazy     139The Hysteria: The Plan of San Diego     140World War I: The Big Shift     141Shifts in Political Consciousness     141Mexican Responses to Industrial Transformation     142The Failure of American Brotherhood     143The Westward Movement of King Cotton     143Conclusion     144The 1920s: The Effects of World War I     145Americanization: A Study of Extremes     145Protestant Churches and Americanization of the Mexican     147Catholic Churches React to Americanization      147Nationalism Versus Americanization     148Mexicans and Mexican Americans     148The Influence of World War I on Becoming Mexican American     149The League of United Latin American Citizens     150The Move to the Cities     152San Antonio's West Side     152Los Angeles: "Where Only the Weeds Grow"     153Mexicans in the Midwest and Points East     156Mexican Labor in the 1920s     158Importance of the Sugar-Beet Industry     159Mexicans in the Northwest     160Mexicans in Texas     161Mexicans in the Midwest     161The Growth of California Agribusiness     162Mexican Unions     162Greasers Go Home     164Keeping America Blond and White     164Conclusion     166Mexican American Communities in the Making: The Depression Years     167The Great Depression: La Crisis     168Stresses and Strains During La Crisis     169Life During the Great Depression     169The Importance of Being San Antonio     172Nativist Deportations of the 1930s     173Repatriation Texas-Style      174The Fate of the Deportee in Mexico     174Factories in the Fields     175Texas Farms     175Renting Mexicans     176The Farm Workers' Revolt     176The El Monte Strike     177The Tagus Ranch     178The San Joaquin Valley Cotton Strike     178The Imperial Valley, 1934     180CUCOM and Mexican Strikes     180The Congress of Industrial Organizations     181Rural Workers in the Lone Star State     182Colorado and the Manitos     183The City     184Los Angeles Mexican Women Garment Workers     184San Antonio Mexicana Workers     185La Pasionaria, the Pecan Shellers' Strike, and San Antonio     186Unionization in Los Angeles     187Labor in the Midwest: Chicago     188The Mexican American Miners' Revolt     189The Mexican-Origin Community     190The Los Angeles Community     191The Mexican American Movement     192El Congreso de los Pueblos de Habla Espanol     192Fighting Segregation     193The Manitos     194Move to the Windy City: Chicago      195Conclusion     195World War II: The Betrayal of Promises     197Changing Identities     197World War II and the Mexican     198El Soldado Raso     198The Case of Guy Gabaldon     199The Story of Company E: The All-Mexican Unit     199Racism at Home and Abroad     200Chicanas Go to War     200The Home Front     201A Profile of Courage     201Finding Scapegoats     201The Sleepy Lagoon Trial     202Mutiny in the Streets of Los Angeles     204Mexicanas Support the War Effort     205Rosita the Riveter     206The Federal Employment Practices Commission     207The Making of the Cold War: The Politics of Control     209Control of Labor     209The Communists Are Coming     210Postwar Opportunities     210Toward a Civil Rights Agenda     212The American G.I. Forum     212A Transitional Period     213Police and Institutional Brutality     213Controlling Mexican Labor     215The Return of Farm Labor Militancy      215Importing Mexicans     217Conclusion     219"Happy Days": Chicano Communities Under Siege     221The Cold War     222The Korean War: Historical Amnesia     222Keeping America American     223Militarization of the Immigration and Naturalization Service     225The Diaspora: An American Odyssey     226The Cities     227Seduced by the Game     230New Mexico: The Illusion of It All     330Los Angeles     231San Antonio     233El Paso     233Civil Rights     234The "Salt of the Earth"     234Toward Equality     235California     236National Spanish-Speaking Council     237The Struggle to Preserve the Barrios     237The FHA Mortgage-Loan and the G.I. Bill     238Urban Renewal: The Day of the Bulldozer     238The Dodgers and Chavez Ravine     239Gentrification in the Midwest     240Conclusion: The Importance of 1959     241Goodbye, America: The Chicano in the 1960s     242The Early 1960s      243Inequality     243Harvest of Shame     245High Hopes: Illusions of the Sleeping Giant     246San Antonio     246Los Angeles     247Organizing in Chicago     248The Building of a Civil Rights Coalition     248Viva Johnson     249Building the Great Society     249The Walkout     250The Black-White Syndrome     250The Illusion Fades     251Impact of the War on Poverty     252Magnetization of the Border     252The Immigration Act of 1965     253Mexican American Reaction to the Memories of Nativism     253The Road to Delano     254Echoes of Delano     255The Road to Brown Power     256The Making of a Movement     257The Formation of Core Groups     258The East L.A. Walkouts     258Chicana/o Student Militancy Spreads     260The Brown Berets     260Tlatelolco, Mexico     261"Wild tribes of...the inner mountains of Mexico"     261Gringos and Tejanos     262The Land Struggle     263The Crusade for Justice     264Chicanas Speak!     265Other Voices     266The Chicano Youth Movement Gains Steam     266Where Is God?     267Violence at Home     267Chicanas/os Under Siege     268Conclusion     270The 1970s and 1980s: The Deconstruction of the Sixties     271Redefining Racism     273Government Legitimizes Racism     273The Politics of Cynicism: Nixon's Hispanic Strategy     273Dismantling the War on Poverty     274Chicano Power     274La Raza Unida Party     275Failure to Build a National Third Party     276The Last Days of La Raza Unida     277Inequality from Within     277Chicana Voices     277Inevitable Factions     278Las Hermanas     279Sterilization     280The Road to Delano     281The Farah Strike: The Breaking of Labor     281Sin Fronteras     282Nativism Is Racism     282Centro de Accion Social Autonoma-Hermandad de General de Trabajadores     283Get the Mexican Bandits     283The Media Perpetuates Racist Nativism     284Getting Away with Terrorism     284In Defense of the Foreign Born     285The Growth of the Chicano Middle Class     285Chicanos as Commodities     286Redefinition of the Political Middle     286Political Gains     287Education: the Stairway to the American Dream     288Education Equality     289Importance of the EOPs     289Expanding Political Vocabularies     290The "Pochoization" of the Vocabulary     291The Myth of a Color-Blind Society     291Legacy Admits     292Why Progressive Organizations Fail     292Violence as an Instrument of Control     293Conclusion     293Becoming a National Minority: 1980-2001     295The Tyranny of Words and Actions     295Shared Space     296El Salvador     297Nicaragua     297Guatemala     298Mexico     298Manufacturing the Crisis     298The Militarization of the Border     299Organizing Immigrant Workers     299The Hotel and Restaurant Workers      300The Janitors     300From Autos to Buses     301The Miners     301Boycott Levis-and Dockers, Too!     302Cesar Chavez and the UFW     302The Movement for Inclusion     303The Sleeping Giant     304Texas: The Lone Star     304Chicago: Where the Wind Blows     305New Mexico: The Illusion     306Colorado     306The Glass Ceiling     307A Profile of Chicanas     307Bucking the Glass Ceiling     307The Tejana Gender Gap     308Immigrant Women Workers     309The 1990s: A Portrait of Inequality     310Can You Smell the Refried Beans?     310Tejano Population Boom     310California: Political Gains     311Under the Influence of the Illusion     311The North American Free Trade Agreement     312The Zapatistas     313"Don't Mourn, Organize!"     313The Political Refugees     314Forging Communities     314The Idealists     315The Backlash     315It Didn't Happen by Accident     316Proposition 187: The American Way     316Proposition 209 and the Color-Blind Society     317Proposition 227: If You Speak One Language, You're American     318The National Scene: Census 2000     318The Big Three     319The California Revolution     319Texas: Gringos Speaking Spanish     320Chicago     320The Northwest: The Spread of the Tortilla Curtain     321The Age of the Believers     322Unsettled Scores     322Conclusion     323Epilogue: Is Antonio Banderas a Chicano?     325Identity and Interests     326Where Are the Other Latinos?     328Not an Identifiable Minority     328Is There a Latino Identity?     330Identifiable Inequality     331Immigration     331The Search for Equality     332The Poor     334"Be all that you can be"     334What's in the Future?     334The Search for Inclusion     336Conclusion     336The Map Room     338Creating a Timeline      340Book Notes     341Index     399