Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials

Studying Society and Social LifeThe Sociological Perspective and Research Process     2Putting Social Life into Perspective     4Why Study Sociology?     4The Sociological Imagination     5The Importance of a Global Sociological Imagination     6The Development of Sociological Thinking     8Early Thinkers: A Concern with Social Order and Stability     9Differing Views on the Status Quo: Stability Versus Change     12The Beginnings of Sociology in the United States     14Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives     15Functionalist Perspectives     15Conflict Perspectives     17Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives     18Postmodern Perspectives     20The Sociological Research Process     21The "Conventional" Research Model     22A Qualitative Research Model     26Research Methods     28Survey Research     28Secondary Analysis of Existing Data     31Field Research     32Experiments     33Ethical Issues in Sociological Research     34Culture     38Culture and Society in a Changing World     40Material Culture and Nonmaterial Culture     41Cultural Universals     43Components of Culture     46Symbols     46Language     47Values     50Norms     51Technology, Cultural Change, and Diversity     53Cultural Change     53Cultural Diversity     54Culture Shock     58Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism     59A Global Popular Culture?     60High Culture and Popular Culture     60Forms of Popular Culture     60Sociological Analysis of Culture     62Functionalist Perspectives     62Conflict Perspectives     62Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives     63Postmodernist Perspectives     64Culture in the Future     66Socialization     70Why Is Socialization Important Around the Globe?     72Human Development: Biology and Society     72Problems Associated with Social Isolation and Maltreatment     74Social Psychological Theories of Human Development     77Freud and the Psychoanalytic Perspective     77Piaget and Cognitive Development     77Kohlberg and the Stages of Moral Development     79Gilligan's View on Gender and Moral Development     80Sociological Theories of Human Development     81Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self     81Mead and Role-Taking     81Recent Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives     84Agents of Socialization     84The Family     85The School     86Peer Groups     87Mass Media     87Gender and Racial/Ethnic Socialization     90Socialization Through the Life Course     91Childhood     92Adolescence     92Adulthood     92Late Adulthood and Ageism     93Resocialization     94Voluntary Resocialization     94Involuntary Resocialization     95Socialization in the Future     95Social Groups and Social ControlSocial Structure and Interaction in Everyday Life     100Social Structure: The Macrolevel Perspective     102Components of Social Structure     104Status     104Roles     108Groups     111Social Institutions     112Societies: Changes in Social Structure     114Durkheim: Mechanical and Organic Solidarity     114Tonnies: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft     115Industrial and Postindustrial Societies     116Social Interaction: The Microlevel Perspective     117Social Interaction and Meaning     117The Social Construction of Reality     120Ethnomethodology     121Dramaturgical Analysis     122The Sociology of Emotions     124Nonverbal Communication     124Changing Social Structure and Interaction in the Future     129Groups and Organizations     132Social Groups     134Groups, Aggregates, and Categories     134Types of Groups     134Group Characteristics and Dynamics     138Group Size     139Group Leadership     140Group Conformity     141Groupthink     143Formal Organizations in Global Perspective     144Types of Formal Organizations     144Bureaucracies     146Problems of Bureaucracies     150Bureaucracy and Oligarchy      152Alternative Forms of Organization     152Organizational Structure in Japan     153Organizations in the Future     155Deviance and Crime     158What Is Deviance?     160Who Defines Deviance?     161What Is Social Control?     162Functionalist Perspectives on Deviance     163What Causes Deviance, and Why Is It Functional for Society?     163Strain Theory: Goals and Means to Achieve Them     164Opportunity Theory: Access to Illegitimate Opportunities     165Conflict Perspectives on Deviance     166Deviance and Power Relations     167Deviance and Capitalism     167Feminist Approaches     167Approaches Focusing on Race, Class, and Gender     168Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives on Deviance     168Differential Association Theory and Differential Reinforcement Theory     169Control Theory: Social Bonding     169Labeling Theory     170Postmodernist Perspectives on Deviance     171Crime Classifications and Statistics     172How the Law Classifies Crime     172Other Crime Categories     172Crime Statistics      177Terrorism and Crime     178Street Crimes and Criminals     178Crime Victims     181The Criminal Justice System     181The Police     182The Courts     183Punishment and Corrections     184Deviance and Crime in the United States in the Future     186The Global Criminal Economy     1873 Social InequalityClass and Stratification in the United States     192What Is Social Stratification?     194Systems of Stratification     194Slavery     195The Caste System     198The Class System     198Classical Perspectives on Social Class     198Karl Marx: Relationship to the Means of Production     199Max Weber: Wealth, Prestige, and Power     200Contemporary Sociological Models of the U.S. Class Structure     202The Weberian Model of the U.S. Class Structure     202The Marxian Model of the U.S. Class Structure     205Inequality in the United States     208Distribution of Income and Wealth     208Consequences of Inequality     211Poverty in the United States      216Who Are the Poor?     217Economic and Structural Sources of Poverty     219Solving the Poverty Problem     219Sociological Explanations of Social Inequality in the United States     220Functionalist Perspectives     220Conflict Perspectives     220Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives     221U.S. Stratification in the Future     223Global Stratification     226Wealth and Poverty in Global Perspective     228Problems in Studying Global Inequality     231The "Three Worlds" Approach     231The Levels of Development Approach     231Classification of Economies by Income     232Low-Income Economies     232Middle-Income Economies     233High-Income Economies     235Measuring Global Wealth and Poverty     235Absolute, Relative, and Subjective Poverty     235The Gini Coefficient and Global Quality-of-Life Issues     236Global Poverty and Human Development Issues     236Life Expectancy     237Health     238Education and Literacy     238Persistent Gaps in Human Development     239Theories of Global Inequality     239Development and Modernization Theory     239Dependency Theory     244World Systems Theory     244The New International Division of Labor Theory     246Global Inequality in the Future     247Race and Ethnicity     252Race and Ethnicity     254The Social Significance of Race and Ethnicity     256Racial Classifications and the Meaning of Race     257Dominant and Subordinate Groups     258Prejudice     258Stereotypes     258Racism     259Theories of Prejudice     260Discrimination     260Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations     262Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives     262Functionalist Perspectives     263Conflict Perspectives     266An Alternative Perspective: Critical Race Theory     268Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States     268Native Americans     268White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (British Americans)     272African Americans     273White Ethnic Americans     275Asian Americans      276Latinos/as (Hispanic Americans)     278Middle Eastern Americans     280Global Racial and Ethnic Inequality in the Future     281Worldwide Racial and Ethnic Struggles     281Growing Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the United States     281Sex and Gender     286Sex: The Biological Dimension     288Hermaphrodites/Transsexuals     289Sexual Orientation     290Gender: The Cultural Dimension     292The Social Significance of Gender     293Sexism     294Gender Stratification in Historical and Contemporary Perspective     294Hunting and Gathering Societies     294Horticultural and Pastoral Societies     295Agrarian Societies     295Industrial Societies     296Postindustrial Societies     297Gender and Socialization     298Parents and Gender Socialization     298Peers and Gender Socialization     299Teachers, Schools, and Gender Socialization     300Sports and Gender Socialization     301Mass Media and Gender Socialization     302Adult Gender Socialization     302Contemporary Gender Inequality     303Gendered Division of Paid Work     303Pay Equity (Comparable Worth)     305Paid Work and Family Work     308Perspectives on Gender Stratification     309Functionalist and Neoclassical Economic Perspectives     309Conflict Perspectives     310Feminist Perspectives     311Gender Issues in the Future     313Social InstitutionsFamilies and Intimate Relationships     316Families in Global Perspective     318Family Structure and Characteristics     319Marriage Patterns     321Patterns of Descent and Inheritance     322Power and Authority in Families     323Residential Patterns     324Theoretical Perspectives on Families     325Functionalist Perspectives     326Conflict and Feminist Perspectives     326Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives     327Postmodernist Perspectives     327Developing Intimate Relationships and Establishing Families     328Love and Intimacy     328Cohabitation and Domestic Partnerships     329Marriage     330Housework and Child-Care Responsibilities     330Child-Related Family Issues and Parenting     332Deciding to Have Children     332Adoption     333Teenage Pregnancies     334Single-Parent Households     334Two-Parent Households     335Remaining Single     336Transitions and Problems in Families     336Family Transitions Based on Age and the Life Course     336Family Violence     338Children in Foster Care     339Elder Abuse     339Divorce     340Remarriage     342Family Issues in the Future     343Education and Religion     346An Overview of Education and Religion     348Sociological Perspectives on Education     348Functionalist Perspectives on Education     349Conflict Perspectives on Education     353Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives on Education     357Problems Within Elementary and Secondary Schools     359Unequal Funding of Public Schools     359School Violence     359Dropping Out     360Racial Segregation and Resegregation     360Opportunities and Challenges in Colleges and Universities     361Opportunities and Challenges in Community Colleges 361 Opportunities and Challenges in Four-Year Colleges and Universities     363The Soaring Cost of a College Education     363Racial and Ethnic Differences in Enrollment     364Religion in Historical Perspective     365Religion and the Meaning of Life     365Religion and Scientific Explanations     366Sociological Perspectives on Religion     368Functionalist Perspectives on Religion     368Conflict Perspectives on Religion     369Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives on Religion     371Types of Religious Organization     371Ecclesia     371The Church-Sect Typology     372Cults     373Trends in Religion in the United States     373Education and Religion in the Future     375Politics and the Economy in Global Perspective     378Politics, Power, and Authority     380Power and Authority     381Ideal Types of Authority     383Political Systems in Global Perspective     385Monarchy     385Authoritarianism      386Totalitarianism     386Democracy     386Perspectives on Power and Political Systems     387Functionalist Perspectives: The Pluralist Model     387Conflict Perspectives: Elite Models     389The U.S. Political System     391Political Parties and Elections     391Political Participation and Voter Apathy     392Governmental Bureaucracy     392Economic Systems in Global Perspective     394Preindustrial, Industrial, and Postindustrial Economies     394Capitalism     396Socialism     400Mixed Economies     402Work in the Contemporary United States     402Professions     402Other Occupations     403Contingent Work     405Unemployment     406Labor Unions and Worker Activism     407Employment Opportunities for Persons with a Disability     408Politics and the Economy in the Future     408Health, Health Care, and Disability     414Health in Global Perspective     416Health in the United States     420Social Epidemiology     420Lifestyle Factors      421Health Care in the United States     424The Rise of Scientific Medicine and Professionalism     424Medicine Today     425Paying for Medical Care in the United States     426Paying for Medical Care in Other Nations     427Social Implications of Advanced Medical Technology     430Holistic Medicine and Alternative Medicine     430Sociological Perspectives on Health and Medicine     431A Functionalist Perspective: The Sick Role     431A Conflict Perspective: Inequalities in Health and Health Care     433A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: The Social Construction of Illness     434A Postmodernist Perspective: The Clinical Gaze     436Disability     436Sociological Perspectives on Disability     439Social Inequalities Based on Disability     439Health Care in the Future     441Social Dynamics and Social ChangePopulation and Urbanization     444Demography: The Study of Population     446Fertility     447Mortality     449Migration     450Population Composition     451Population Growth in Global Context     452The Malthusian Perspective     452The Marxist Perspective     452The Neo-Malthusian Perspective     456Demographic Transition Theory     456Other Perspectives on Population Change     457A Brief Glimpse at International Migration Theories     459Urbanization in Global Perspective     460Emergence and Evolution of the City     460Preindustrial Cities     461Industrial Cities     462Postindustrial Cities     462Perspectives on Urbanization and the Growth of Cities     463Functionalist Perspectives: Ecological Models     463Conflict Perspectives: Political Economy Models     465Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives: The Experience of City Life     467Problems in Global Cities     469Urban Problems in the United States     470Divided Interests: Cities, Suburbs, and Beyond     471The Continuing Fiscal Crises of the Cities     473Population and Urbanization in the Future     473Collective Behavior, Social Movements, and Social Change     478Collective Behavior     480Conditions for Collective Behavior     480Dynamics of Collective Behavior      483Distinctions Regarding Collective Behavior     483Types of Crowd Behavior     484Explanations of Crowd Behavior     485Mass Behavior     487Social Movements     492Types of Social Movements     493Stages in Social Movements     495Social Movement Theories     495Relative Deprivation Theory     495Value-Added Theory     495Resource Mobilization Theory     496Social Constructionist Theory: Frame Analysis     497New Social Movement Theory     498Social Change in the Future     500The Physical Environment and Change     500Population and Change     502Technology and Change     502Social Institutions and Change     503A Few Final Thoughts     504Glossary     509References     519Photo Credits     541Name Index     543Subject Index     551