The Ultimate Church Sound Operator's Handbook

Preface     xxiThe Value in History     xxiThe Road Is Narrow     xxiiTerminology     xxiiiQualifications for Being a Sound Operator     1List of Qualifications     2Listens to Music     2Loves Music     3Is a Proven Advocate of the Church, Pastor, Council, Organizational Structure, and Leadership     3Agrees with Church Theology     3Is a Church Member, Committed to the Church Mission and Vision     3Understands the Style and Spirit of Worship Music Desired by Church Leadership     4Is Servant-Hearted     4Has a Positive Outlook     4Does Not Have an Ego Problem     5Has a Consistent Spiritual Life     5Is Ministry-Minded     6Is a Lifelong Learner     7Is a Hard Worker     7Has a Long Attention Span     7Has a Stable Family Life     7Pursues Excellence     8Is Technically Gifted     8Has Good People Skills     8Has a Mature Perspective     9Likes to Help Others Succeed     10Does Not Participate in Gossip     10IsDetermined to Become an Excellent Sound Operator     10Summary     10Responsibilities of a Sound Operator     11Pray for the Worship Team     11Commit to Spiritual Development and Growth     12Get to Know the Team Leaders     12F+ind Out What the Music Director Expects     13Attend Rehearsals     13Attend Small Group Meetings     13Listen to Service Recordings     14Listen to Current Worship Music     14Be Punctual     15Learn the Songs     15Set Up Gear     16Strike Gear     16Develop Storage Systems     17Labeling Systems     17Snakes     19Storage Bins and Reels     19Mic Cases and Racks     20Storage Hooks and Racks     20Learn What a Good Mix Is     20Attend Seminars and Classes     20The Spiritual Importance of Worship and Music     21What Is Worship?     21The Authority of Excellence     22The Musicians to Battle before the Soldiers     23We Are Instructed throughout the Bible to Worship      24Take Your Duty Seriously     26Communicating the Heart and Word of God     26Prayer and the Sound Ministry     26Time, Just in Time     27Relational Considerations     29The Worship Service from the Minister's Viewpoint     29Introduce the Congregation to God     30Prepare the Congregation to Hear the Sermon     30Create a Unified Spiritual Tone among the Congregation     30Getting Along with Everyone     31Bending Over Backward     31Grace versus Judgment     31Keep Everything in Perspective     32An Atmosphere of Peace     32The Sound Operator/Pastor Relationship     33Be a Friend to the Pastor     33Ask Your Pastor's Opinion     33Be Understanding     33Be Open to Criticism     34Don't Offend Quickly     34Pastors Are People Too     35You Gotta Know When to Hold 'Em, Know When to Fold 'Em     35Communicate, Communicate, Communicate     35Ask Questions     36Keep Track of the Leaders' Opinions     36Conflicting Opinions and Who Wins     37Don't Avoid the Elephant in the Room     38Tone of Communication     38Reasons to Stand Up and Speak Your Mind     39Countering Blasphemy     39Defending the Pastor     40When the Pastor Doesn't Understand the Facts     40Don't Sweat the Small Stuff     40The Best Ways to Get Your Point Across     40Prayer     40Follow Protocol     41List Your Concerns or Joys     41The Worst Ways to Get Your Point Across     41Gossip     42Stirring the Pot     42Setting Up Camp     42Well...I'll Just Do It Anyway     43The E-Mail Bomb and Why You Should Avoid It     43Negative, Harsh, and Judgmental Attitude     44To Get Paid or Not to Get Paid     45The Volunteer Sound Operator     45It Doesn't Matter if You're Paid or Not     45Do Your Best     45Enjoy Being Part of Ministry     46Be Sensitive to Others     46Be Punctual     47The Quest for Excellence Shouldn't Change with Pay     47The Paid-Staff Sound Operator     48The Part-Time Gig      48Accountability     48Serving Multiple Ministries     49Training Ministry Leaders     50Building a Team     52Developing a Volunteer Crew     52Prayer and Share Time     53Special Functions     53Motivating and Assisting     54Job Descriptions     57Scheduling     58Volume Issues     61Pastoral Considerations     61Sound Operator Considerations     63Congregational Considerations     63Why Volume Issues Are So Common     64The Pastor versus the Music Director     65Agreement Is the Solution     65EQ versus Volume     66Painful Frequencies versus Comforting Frequencies     67Sound Reinforcement versus Music Presentation     67The Decibel Meter     67Who Is in Control?     68Can the Congregation Hear Themselves?     69Earning the Trust of the Team     69Multi-Generational Considerations     71Understanding Hearing Differences     71Types of Hearing Loss     72Presbycusis      72Tinnitus     73Conductive Hearing Loss     73Aural Hypersensitivity     73Hyperacusis     73Recruitment     74Education Is the Answer     74Senior Citizens (Born before 1946)     75Boomers (Born between 1946 and 1964)     75Generation X (Born between 1965 and 1980)     76Youth Groups     77Children     78Sound Theory     79Characteristics of Sound     79Speed     81Cycles     82Frequency     82Pitch     83Wavelength     83Amplitude     84Loudness     84Phase     87Harmonics, Overtones, and Partials     89Shape     92Envelope     93Attack     93Decay     94Sustain     94Release     94Interconnect Basics     95Speaker Cables     95Line-Level Cables     95Microphone Cables     96Some Cable Theory     96Balance of Amplitude      97Timing Considerations     97Do Cables Really Sound Different?     97Digital-Interconnect Cables     98Impedance     99Terminology     100Compatibility between Hi Z and Lo Z     100Balanced versus Unbalanced     102Terminology     102Unbalanced Guitar Cables     103Balanced Wiring     103Connectors     105RCA Connectors     105Quarter-Inch Phone Connectors     106XLR Connectors     107The Dual Banana Connector     107Speakon Connectors     108Plugging In     109Electrical Power     109Powering Up     109Powering Down     109Ground Hum     109Grounding     110Ground Loops     110Solutions to Grounding Problems     110Connect All Equipment to the Same Outlet     111Hire a Pro     111Auxiliary Power Supply     111Lifting the Ground     111Disconnect Shield at the Destination     112Circuit Tester     112Danger, Danger      112The Front-of-House Mixer     115Signal Path     115Input Levels     116Comparison of Three Different Versions of the Same Mix     117Input Stage     117Output Impedance     117The Preamp     118Attenuator     119Direct Box     120Passive versus Active DIs     121Meters     121Volume Unit (VU)     121Peak Program Meters (PPM)     122Adjusting Levels for Transients     122Phase     123Input Level Comparison     125Phantom Power     126Mic Level     126Line Level     126+4 dBm versus-10 dBV     127Channel Insert     128Effects Bus     128The Difference between a Live Mixer and a Recording Mixer     129Mutes     129Live     129Recording     129Outputs     130Live     130Recording     130Inputs     130Live     130Recording     130Solo Functions      131Live     131Recording     131Portability     131Live     131Recording     131Managing the Signal Path     131Input Faders     131Pre and Post     131Using the Aux Bus     132Group Assignment     133Summing     134Three Practical Applications for Splitting a Signal Using a Y     134Pan     135Gain Structure     135Unity Gain     135Potential Problems     136Solo     136PFL (Pre Fader Listen)     136AFL (After Fader Listen)     137Solo in Place/Mixdown Solo     137Mutes     137The Equalizer     137Frequency Selection (Hertz)     138Definition of Frequency Ranges     140Bandwidth     141Sweepable EQ     142Parametric EQ     143Graphic EQ     143Notch Filter     144Peaking Filters     144High-Pass Filter     144Low-Pass Filter     145Band-Pass Filter      145Shelving EQ     145Combined Equalizers     146The Equalizer's Sound     146Stereo Master     146Talkback/Communications     146Test Tones     147Console Layout     148Matrix     149Direct Outs     149The Analog Mixer versus the Digital Mixer     150FOH Mixer Position     150Mono Mix     150Stereo Mix     150Signal Processors     153Dynamics Processors     153Compressor     153To Compress or Not to Compress-That Is the Question     155Compression Parameters     155Threshold     155Attack Time     156Release Time     157Ratio     157Output Level     158The Difference between a Compressor and a Limiter     158Hard Knee versus Soft Knee Compression/Limiting     158Peak/RMS Detection     158Side Chain     159Meters on the Compressor/Limiter     160Input Level Meter     160Output Level Meter     161Gain Reduction Meter      161The Limiter     161Setup Suggestions for the Compressor/Limiter     162Effects Processors     163Wet versus Dry     163Patching Effects Devices     163Simple Delay Effects     163Slapback Delay     164Doubling/Tripling     165Modulation     166Phase Shifter     167Flanger     167Chorus     167Phase Reversal and Regeneration     167Stereo Effects     168Reverberation Effects     169Hall Reverb     170Chamber Reverb     170Plate Reverb     170Room Reverb     170Reverse Reverb     171Gated Reverb     171Other Variations of Reverberation     171Reverberation Effects Parameters     172Predelay     172Diffusion     172Decay Time     172Density     172Microphone Principles and Design     173Directional Characteristic     174Polar Response Graph     175On-Axis     175Off-Axis      175Sensitivity Scale     176Omnidirectional     176Bidirectional     177Unidirectional     177Cardioid     178Supercardioid     178Hypercardioid     178Ultracardioid     178Subcardioid     178Practical Applications     179Operating Principle     180Transducer Types     180Magnetic Induction Transducers     180Variable Capacitance Transducers     180Operating Principle of the Moving-Coil Mic     181Operating Principle of the Ribbon Mic     181Operating Principle of the Condenser Mic     182Phantom Power     184Electret Condenser Microphones     185Comparison between Moving-Coil, Ribbon, and Condenser Microphones     185Moving-Coil Mics     185Condenser Microphones     186Ribbon Mics     187The Shaping of the Pickup Pattern     188Physical Housing Design     188The Proximity Effect     190Compensating for the Proximity Effect     191Using the Proximity Effect to Our Advantage     191Response Characteristic     191Frequency Response Curve     191Transient Response     192Output Characteristic     192Equivalent Noise Rating/Self-Noise     192Sensitivity     193Maximum SPL Rating     193Impedance     194Stereo Mic Techniques     194Wireless Systems     199Components of the System     199Input Device     199Transmitter     199Receiver     200AM and FM Systems     200Amplitude Modulation     201Frequency Modulation     201VHF and UHF Systems     201Capture Effect     202Diversity     202Range     203Antenna Distribution Systems     204Batteries     204Diversity Indicator     205Squelch     206Microphones for Wireless Systems     206Lavaliere     206Headset     209Lectern     209Handheld     209Control Which Mic Is Turned On     209Two Mics     210Wireless Frequency Selection      210Mute Switch versus Power Switch     211Caring for the Antenna     211Adjusting Levels     212Connecting to the Sound System     212The Backup Plan     213Using the Wireless System     213Loudspeakers     215Commercially Built Cabinets     215Manufacturers     217Pro Audio Suppliers     218Crossover Configurations     218Passive Crossover     219Active Crossover     219Analog versus Digital Crossovers     220Full-Range Cabinets     220Two-Way Cabinets     220Three-Way Cabinets     221Four-Way Systems     222Powered Cabinets Pros and Cons     222Speaker Components     223Drivers     223Direct Radiating Cone Speakers     223Horn Compression Drivers     224The Importance of Enclosures     224Sealed Enclosures     225Infinite Baffle     225Acoustic Suspension     225Bass Reflex     225The Passive Radiator     226Transmission Line      226Component Alignment     226Speaker Impedance     228Calculating Speaker Impedance Loads     229The Racks     231Drive Rack     231Dynamics     232Compressor/Limiters     232Equalizers     233Real-Time Analyzers (RTA)     233Crossovers     235Delays     236The Amp Rack     237Peak Power     237RMS Power     237Continuous Power     237THD (Total Harmonic Distortion)     238IMD (Intermodulation Distortion)     238Speaker Sensitivity     238Power, SPL, and Sensitivity     239Correct Power Ratings for Each Cabinet     239Bridging a Stereo Amplifier     239Effects Rack     241Mic Preamplifiers     241Dynamics     242Compressor/Limiter     243Expander/Gates     244Effects     246Equalizers     247Music Playback Devices     247Recording Devices     248Patch Bays     248Intermittent Connections      249Loss of Signal Integrity     249Confusion for Inexperienced Operators     249Are They More Trouble Than They're Worth?     250Selecting the Appropriate Connection Format     250Quarter-Inch     250Tiny Telephone     250RCA     250Types of Patch Bay Connections     250Normalled     250Half Normalled-Bottom     251Half-Normalled-Top     251Full-Normalled     251Parallel     251De-Normalled, Non-Normalled, or Isolated     251What Goes into a Patch Bay     252Mixer Outputs     252Mixer Inputs     252Processor Inputs and Outputs     253Playback Device Outputs     253Tie Lines     253Recording Device Inputs and Outputs     253Planning and Laying Out an Efficient Bay     254Keeping it Neat     255Locking Various Components     255Lockout Devices     255The Box with No Knobs     256Basic Equipment Needs     247Generic Recommendations     257Professional Help      257Microphones     258Cables     258Direct Boxes     258Playback Devices     259Cases     259Small Church: Fewer Than 75 People     259Music versus Voice Reproduction     259Sound System Recommendation #1     259Mixer/Amp/Processor     260Speakers     260Sound System Recommendation #2     260Powered Mixers and Speakers     261Mackie     261Yamaha     261JBL     262Monitors     262Medium Church: Between 76 and 300 People     262Mixer     262Speakers     264Monitors     264Large Church: Between 301 and 1,000 People     265Professional Help     265Mixer     266Speakers     267Monitors     267Portable Systems     267Mega Church: More Than 1,000 People     268Professional Help     268Mixer     269Analog     269Digital     270Speakers     270Monitors      270Gymnasiums     270Youth Group     271Permanent System     271Portable System     271Evaluate Your Existing System     272Planning for Growth     272Growing the Plan     273Analysis Tools     273RTAs     273TEF Analysis     274Monitor Systems     275Feedback     275Directional Characteristic     276Mic Polar Response     276Monitor Connections     277Ringing Out the System     277The Procedure     278The Feedback Eliminator     278Singers Can Help     279Sing Close to the Mic     279Hand Over the Mic     279Hold the Body     279Don't Point     280Leaning Down to the Monitor     280More Mics Cause More Feedback Problems     280Floor Wedges     280Look behind the Group     280The Angle of Ascent     281Get Back, Jo Jo     281The Escalation of Desires     281To Wedge or Not to Wedge     282Dealing with Floor Monitor Leakage     282Side Fills     282Small-Format Monitors     283In-Ear Monitors     284Headphones     284Ear Buds     285ButtKicker     285Recommended In-Ear Systems     286Aux-Based Systems     286Channel-Based System     286Interface with FOH     287Direct Outputs     288System Hub Splits     289Splitter Snake     289Active versus Passive Split     289Aux Bus     290Monitor Mixer     291Getting Wireless     291Characteristics of a Good Monitor Mix     291Listen Up!     292Systems Design and Layout     293Mixer Placement     293Mono     293Stereo     294LCR     294Walk the Room     294Speaker Placement     295Front Line Boundary     295Critical Distance     295Coverage Pattern     296Connecting Multiple Speakers     297Time-Aligning Components     297Center Cluster      298Arrays     298Point Source Arrays     299Split-Point Source Arrays     299Zone Coverage     300Time Align     301Keep It Neat and Simple     301Bundles     301Digital Snakes     302Fine-Tuning the System     302Ear or Gear     302Voicing the System     303Analysis Methods and Devices     303The Sound Level Meter     303The Rack-Mounted Real-Time Analyzer     304The Software Real-Time Analyzer     306The Inadequacy of the RTA     308Documentation     308Three-Ring Binders     309Computer Documentation Files     309Build a Documentation System with a Plan     309Document All Connections and Settings     310Keeping Track of Gear     310Acoustic Considerations     311Dealing with Acoustics     311The Room     312Diffusion and Absorption     312Mode/Standing Wave/Resonance     313Calculating the Frequency of Standing Waves in a Room     314Axial Standing Waves      315Tangential Standing Waves     315Oblique Standing Waves     315Calculating Problematic Modes     315Consider All Opposing Surfaces     315Red Flags     316Flutter Echo     316Your Location in the Room Matters     317Everything Else in the Room Matters     318The Rectangle     318The Goal     318Solutions to Acoustical Problems     318Dimensional Proportions     318Adjusting Angles     319Concave Angles     319Convex Angles     320Treating Surfaces     320Absorption Coefficient (Absorbers)     320Diffusers     321The Ceiling     321Corners     322The Bass Trap     322Power Alley     323Using Your Knowledge of Acoustics     324New Construction     324Miking the Group     325Electric Guitar     325Guitar Fundamentals     326Tone and Timbre     326Pickup Placement     326Tone Controls     327Frequency Content      328Running Direct into the Mixer     328Miking the Speaker     328Mic Techniques     330Electric Guitar Levels     330Pickups     330Pickup Position     331Pickup Types     331Single-Coil     332Double-Coil Humbucking     332Active Pickups     332Equalizing the Guitar     332Delay     333Electronic Doubling     334Chorus/Flanger/Phase Shifter     334Reverberation     335Bass Guitar     335Direct Box/Direct In (DI)     336Pickup Output Level     336Plucking Styles     337Levels for Bass     338Compressing the Electric Bass     338Equalization of the Bass Guitar     340Panning the Bass     341Drums and Percussion     342Drum Conditioning     342Tuning     342Drumsticks     342Muffling Drums     343Hardware     343Room Acoustics     344Theories of Drum Miking     344Essential Microphones      344Mic Choices     344Positioning the Microphones     345Phase Interaction between Mics     345Drum Levels     345Isolating the Acoustic Drum Kit     346Miking a Drum Set with One Microphone     346Miking a Kit with Two Mics     347Miking a Kit with Three Mics     348Miking a Kit with Four Mics     349Close-Mike Technique     349Equalizing Drums     350Kick Drum     351Snare Drum     353Miking Toms     354Overhead Microphones     354The Hi-Hat Mic     355Gating the Drum Tracks     355Aiming the Mics     356Click Track     356Effects on Drums     357Compressing Drums     357Panning the Drums     357Miking Piano     358Mic Choice and Technique     359Stereo or Mono     361Instrument Maintenance     361Additional Mic Techniques     361Piano Levels     362Equalizing the Piano     364Compressing the Piano     364Reverberation      365Miking Vocals     365Mic Choice     365Moving-Coil (Dynamic) Mics     366Ribbon Mics     366Condenser Mics     366Mic Technique     367Proximity Effect     367The Timid     368The Bold     368The Outrageous Ham     368The Seasoned Singer     369Holding the Mic     369Wind Screen     369Hygiene     370The Proximity Effect     370Bass Roll-Off     371Dynamic Range     371Compressor/Limiter/Gate/Expander     371Backing Vocals     372Choir     372Mic Choice and Technique     372Ratio of Mics to Singers     373Positioning Choir Mics     374Cardioid Polar Pattern     374Pitch, Tone, Enunciation, and Blend     375Monitors     375Controlling the Band     376Monitor Content     376Monitor Position     376Synthesized Sounds     377Panning the Synth     377Equalization and Effects      377Acoustic Guitar     377Strings     378Picks     378Alternate Tunings     378The Impact of Different Wood Configurations on Tone     379Electric Acoustic Guitars     379Mic Techniques     380Dynamic Processing and the Acoustic Guitar     381Sound Check     383Setup Routine     383Power On/Power Off     383Labeling and Storage     384Walls and Boxes     384Build a System and Stick to It     385Training the Crew     385Zero the Board     386Documentation of the Mix     386Mark the Board     386...and Then There's Digital     387Decide on the Mixer Layout and Subgroupings     387Verify Functionality of All Equipment     388Feedback     389Performer Sound Check     389Ensure Functionality     389Refine Settings     389Perfection     390Fine-Tune the Monitor Mix     390The Difference between What They Want and What They Need     390Invite the Musicians to the Board      390Start without Monitors     390Communication with the Performers     391Built-in Talkback Mic     391External Talkback Mic     391Basic Troubleshooting     392Creating an Excellent Mix     395Structuring the Arrangement     395How to Structure an Effective Band Arrangement     396Arrangement Format 1     396Arrangement Format 2     396Ideally     397Creating Size in a Small Room     398Controlling the Mix in a Large Room     398The Sermon     399Intelligibility     399Headset Microphone     399Lavaliere Microphone     399Lectern Microphone     400Handheld Microphone     400Volume     401Compression     401Riding the Level     401Body Packs On or Off     402Watch the Wireless Mic Status     403Building the Mix     404The Decibel Meter and the Mix     404The Difference between Rehearsal and the Event     404First Things First     405Subtractive versus Additive Mixing      406Mixing Techniques for Rhythm Section and Voice     407Equalization: The Cumulative Effect     407Combining EQ     407Allocating EQ across the Audible Spectrum     408Learning from the Recording Engineer's Bag of Tricks     408Fitting the Puzzle Together: Consciously Combining EQ     410Sweeping a Peak to Find a Problem     410Basic Procedures for Building the Mix     411Electronic Drums     411Stock versus Custom Patches     411Phones and the FOH     412Equalization and Effects     413Kick and Snare Drums     413Pan the Cymbals for a Natural Sound     413Acoustic Drums     414Kick Drum     414Sweet Spot     414Mids     415Highs     415Complement Bass Guitar     415Snare Drum     415Toms     416Drum Set Overheads (Live)     416Bass Guitar     417Mixing Guitars     417Acoustic Guitar     417Running Direct     418Dynamic Control     418EQ     418Effects      418Electric Guitar     418Creating a Huge Sound     419Mixing Keyboards     420Piano     420Synth and Pad Effects     421Mixing the Lead Vocal     421Compression     422Expander     422Vocal EQ     422Simple Delay     423Add Backing Vocals     423Compressing the Group     423Panning     424Reverberation     425Combining Wet and Dry     425Delay     425Mixing the Event: Focus, Focus, Focus!     425Blending the Drums and Bass     426Blending Electric Guitars     427Blending Acoustic Guitars     427Blending the Mix     427Index     429