Visualizing Psychology

Introduction and Research Methods     2Introducing Psychology     4What Is Psychology?     4Origins of Psychology     6A Brief History: Psychology's Intellectual Roots     6What a Scientist Sees: The Biopsychosocial Model     10Women and Minorities in Psychology     11The Science of Psychology     12The Scientific Method: A Way of Discovering     12Ethical Guidelines: Protecting the Rights of Others     12Research Methods     15Experimental Research: A Search for Cause and Effect     16Descriptive Research: Naturalistic Observation, Surveys, and Case Studies     18Correlational Research: Looking for Relationships     20Biological Research: Tools for Exploring the Brain and Nervous System     20Getting the Most from Your Study of Psychology     24Familiarization     24Active Reading     24Visual Learning     24With Your Own Eyes: Improving Your Grade     26Time Management     26Distributed Study     27Overlearning     27Neuroscience and Biological Foundations     32Our Genetic Inheritance     34Behavioral Genetics: Is It Nature or Nurture?     34Evolutionary Psychology: Darwin Explains Behavior and Mental Processes     36Neural Bases of Behavior     37How Do Neurons Communicate?     38What a Scientist Sees: How Poisons and Drugs Affect Our Brain     41Hormones: A Global Communication System     42Nervous System Organization     44Central Nervous System (CNS): The Brain and Spinal Cord     44With Your Own Eyes: Infant Reflexes     47Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connecting the CNS to the Rest of the Body     47What a Scientist Sees: Sexual Arousal     49A Tour Through the Brain     50Lower-Level Brain Structures: The Hindbrain, Midbrain, and Parts of the Forebrain     50The Cerebral Cortex: The Center of "Higher" Processing     53Two Brains in One? A House Divided     55Stress and Health Psychology     62Understanding Stress     64Sources of Stress     64How Stress Affects the Body     66Stress and Illness     69Cancer: A Variety of Causes-Even Stress     69Cardiovascular Disorders: The Leading Cause of Death in the United States     69What a Scientist Sees: Type A Personality and Hostility     71Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A Disease of Modern Times?     72Gastric Ulcers: Are They Caused by Stress?     72Health Psychology in Action     74Tobacco: Hazardous to Your Health     74Alcohol: A Personal and Social Health Problem     76With Your Own Eyes: Do You Have an Alcohol Problem?     77Chronic Pain: An Ongoing Threat to Health     77Health and Stress Management     78Coping with Stress     78Resources for Healthy Living: From Good Health to Money     80Sensation and Perception     86Understanding Sensation     88Processing: Detection and Conversion     88Adaptation: Weakening the Response     89How We See and Hear     91Waves of Light and Sound     91Vision: The Eyes Have It     92Hearing: A Sound Sensation     92Our Other Senses     96Smell and Taste: Sensing Chemicals     96The Body Senses: More than Just Touch     97Understanding Perception     99Selection: Extracting Important Messages     99With Your Own Eyes: Illusions      99Organization: Form, Constancy, Depth, and Color     101What a Scientist Sees: Perceptual Constancies     104With Your Own Eyes: Color Aftereffects     106Interpretation: Explaining Our Perceptions     106States of Consciousness     114Consciousness, Sleep, and Dreaming     116With Your Own Eyes: Are You Sleep Deprived?     119Stages of Sleep: How Scientists Study Sleep     119Sleep Disorders: When Sleep Becomes a Problem     123Psychoactive Drugs     126Psychoactive Drugs: Four Categories     129Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis     133Meditation: A Healthy "High"     133What a Scientist Sees: Meditation and the Brain     134Hypnosis: Uses and Myths     135Learning     142Classical Conditioning     144The Beginnings of Classical Conditioning     144Fine-Tuning Classical Conditioning     146Operant Conditioning     149The Beginnings of Operant Conditioning     149Reinforcement: Strengthening a Response     150What a Scientist Sees: Partial Reinforcement Keeps 'em Coming Back     152Punishment: Weakening a Response     153Cognitive-Social Learning     156Insight and Latent Learning: Where Are the Reinforcers?     156Observational Learning: What We See Is What We Do     158The Biology of Learning     160Neuroscience and Learning: The Adaptive Brain     160Evolution and Learning: Biological Preparedness and Instinctive Drift     161Conditioning and Learning in Everyday Life     163Classical Conditioning: From Prejudice to Phobias     163With Your Own Eyes: Classical Conditioning as a Marketing Tool     164Operant Conditioning: Prejudice, Biofeedback, and Superstition     164Cognitive-Social Learning: We See, We Do?     166Memory     172The Nature of Memory     174Four Models of Memory: An Overview     174Sensory Memory     176Short-Term Memory     177What a Scientist Sees: Chunking in Chess     177Long-Term Memory     179Improving Long-Term Memory: Organization, Rehearsal, Retrieval     180Biological Bases of Memory     182Neuronal and Synaptic Changes in Memory     182Hormonal Changes and Memory     183Where Are Memories Located?      183Biological Causes of Memory Loss: Injury and Disease     184Forgetting     186Theories of Forgetting     186Factors Involved in Forgetting     188Memory Distortions     189With Your Own Eyes: A Memory Test     190Memory and Eyewitness Testimony     191Repressed Memories     192With Your Own Eyes: Tips for Memory Improvement     193Thinking, Language, and Intelligence     198Thinking     200The Thinking Brain: Making Connections     200Cognitive Building Blocks     200Solving Problems     202Barriers to Problem Solving     202Creativity: Finding Unique Solutions     204With Your Own Eyes: Are You Creative?     204Language     206What Is Language?     206Language and Thought: A Complex Interaction     206Language Development: From Crying to Talking     207Can Humans Talk to Nonhuman Animals?     209Intelligence     211Do We Have One or Many Intelligences?     211Measuring Intelligence?     213The Intelligence Controversy     216Extremes in Intelligence: Mental Retardation and Giftedness     216The Brain's Influence on Intelligence     217Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence     218What a Scientist Sees: Family Studies of Intelligence     218Ethnicity and Intelligence: Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased?     219Life Span Development I     226Studying Development     228Theoretical Issues: Ongoing Debates     228Research Methods: Two Basic Approaches     230Physical Development     232Prenatal and Early Childhood: A Time of Rapid Change     232What a Scientist Sees: How an Infant Perceives the World     237Adolescence and Adulthood: A Time of Both Dramatic and Gradual Change     238Cognitive Development     242Stages of Cognitive Development: Birth to Adolescence     243With Your Own Eyes: Putting Piaget to the Test     246Assessing Piaget's Theory: Criticisms and Contributions     248Life Span Development II     254Social, Moral, and Personality Development     256Social Development: The Importance of Attachment     256What a Scientist Sees: Attachment: The Power of Touch     257Moral Development: Kohlberg's Stages      260Personality Development: Erikson's Psychosocial Theory     264How Sex, Gender, and Culture Affect Development     266Sex and Gender Influences on Development     266Cultural Influences on Development     270Developmental Challenges Through Adulthood     272Committed Relationships: Overcoming Unrealistic Expectations     272With Your Own Eyes: Are Your Relationship Expectations Realistic?     273Work and Retirement: How They Affect Us?     274Death and Dying: Our Final Developmental Crisis     276Motivation and Emotion     282Theories and Concepts of Motivation     284Biological Theories: Looking for Internal "Whys" of Behavior     284With Your Own Eyes: Sensation Seeking     286Psychosocial Theories: Incentives and Cognitions     287Biopsychosocial Theories: Interactionism Once Again     287Motivation and Behavior     289Hunger and Eating: Multiple Factors     289Achievement: The Need for Success     293Sexuality: The World's Most Powerful Motive?     294Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation: Is One Better than the Other?     296Theories and Concepts of Emotion     298Three Components of Emotion     298Four Major Theories of Emotion     300Culture, Evolution, and Emotion     304What a Scientist Sees: Polygraph testing     306Personality     312Trait Theories     314Early Trait Theorists     314The Five-Factor Model: Five Basic Personality Traits     314With Your Own Eyes: Love and the "Big Five"     316Evaluating Trait Theories     317Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories     318Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory: The Power of the Unconscious     318Neo-Freudian/Psychodynamic Theories: Revising Freud's Ideas     322Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories: Criticisms and Enduring Influence     324Humanistic Theories     325Roger's Theory: The Importance of the Self     325What a Scientist Sees: Congruence, Mental Health, and Self-Esteem     325Maslow's Theory: The Search for Self-Actualization     326Evaluating Humanistic Theories: Three Major Criticisms     327Social-Cognitive Theories     328Bandura's and Rotter's Approaches: Social Learning Plus Cognitive Processes     328Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theory: The Pluses and Minuses     329Biological Theories     330Three Major Contributors to Personality: The Brain, Neurochemistry, and Genetics     330The Biopsychosocial Model: Pulling the Perspectives Together     331Personality Assessment     332Interviews and Observation     332Objective Tests     332Projective Tests     334Are Personality Measurements Accurate?     334Psychological Disorders     340Studying Psychological Disorders     342Identifying Abnormal Behavior: Four Basic Standards     342Explaining Abnormality: From Superstition to Science     342Classifying Abnormal Behavior: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV-TR     344What a Scientist Sees: Seven Psychological Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior     345Anxiety Disorders     348Four Major Anxiety Disorders: The Problem of Fear     348Causes of Anxiety Disorders     350Mood Disorders     352Understanding Mood Disorders Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder     352Causes of Mood Disorders: Biological versus Psychosocial Factors     353Schizophrenia     354Symptoms of Schizophrenia: Five Areas of Disturbance     354Types of Schizophrenia: Recent Methods of Classification     356Causes of Schizophrenia: Nature and Nurture Theories     356Other Disorders     359Substance-Related Disorders     359Dissociative Disorders: When the Personality Splits Apart     360Personality Disorders: Antisocial and Borderline     360How Gender and Culture Affect Abnormal Behavior     362Gender and Depression: Why Are Women More Depressed?     363Culture and Schizophrenia: Differences Around the World     364Avoiding Ethnocentrism     364Therapy     372Insight Therapies     374Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic Therapies: Unlocking the Secrets of the Unconscious     374Cognitive Therapies: A Focus on Faulty Thoughts and Beliefs     376Humanistic Therapies: Blocked Personal Growth     378With Your Own Eyes: Client-Centered Therapy in Action     380Group, Family, and Marital Therapies: Healing Interpersonal Relationships     381Behavior Therapies     383Classical Conditioning Techniques     383Operant Conditioning Techniques     384Observational Learning Techniques     384Evaluating Behavior Therapies     386Biomedical Therapies      386Psychopharmacology: Treating Psychological Disorders with Drugs     387Electroconvulsive Therapy and Psychosurgery     388What a Scientist Sees: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)     389Evaluating Biomedical Therapies     389Therapy Essentials     391Therapy Goals and Effectiveness     391Cultural Issues in Therapy     392Women and Therapy     393Institutionalization     394Social Psychology     400Our Thoughts about Others     402Attribution: Explaining Behavior     402Attitudes: Learned Predispositions toward Others     403Our Feelings about Others     405Prejudice and Discrimination     405Interpersonal Attraction     408What a Scientist Sees: Love Over the Life Span     410Our Actions toward Others     411Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience     411What a Scientist Sees: What Influences Obedience?     414Group Processes     416Aggression     419Altruism: Helping Others     420Applying Social Psychology to Social Problems     422Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination      422Overcoming Destructive Obedience: When Is It Okay to Say No?     423Statistics and PsychologyAnswers to Self-TestsGlossaryReferencesCreditsName IndexSubject Index