Ubuntu Unleashed: 2010 Edition: Covering 9.10 and 10.4

Introduction 1Part I Installation and Configuration1 Installing Ubuntu 11Before You Begin the Installation.................................................................11Researching Your Hardware Specifications .........................................12Installation Options.............................................................................12Planning Partition Strategies ...............................................................12The Boot Loader ..................................................................................13Installing from CD or DVD .................................................................13Step-by-Step Installation...............................................................................13Starting the Install ...............................................................................14First Update..........................................................................................20Wubi–The Easy Installer for Windows ..............................................22Shutting Down ....................................................................................24Reference .......................................................................................................242 Post-Installation Configuration 25Troubleshooting Post-Installation Configuration Problems ........................26The sudo command ......................................................................................27First Update...................................................................................................28Configuring Software Repositories ...............................................................30Installing Graphics Drivers ...........................................................................33Changing Ubuntu’s Look and Feel...............................................................34Changing the Desktop Background ....................................................34Changing Colors..................................................................................35Modifying System Fonts......................................................................36Changing How Menus Look ...............................................................36Visual Effects........................................................................................37Preferred Behaviors .......................................................................................37Preferred Applications .........................................................................37Removable Drives and Media..............................................................39Input Devices ................................................................................................39Keyboard Shortcuts..............................................................................40Keyboard Layout..................................................................................40Mouse...................................................................................................41Detecting and Configuring a Modem ..........................................................42Configuring a Serial-Port Modem .......................................................42Configuring WinModems for Laptops................................................42Configuring Power Management in Ubuntu ...............................................43Setting the Date and Time............................................................................44Using the date Command ...................................................................45Using the hwclock Command ............................................................45Changing the Time and Date..............................................................46Configuring and Using CD, DVD, and CD-RW Drives................................46Checking Drive Assignment................................................................47Configuring Wireless Networks ....................................................................48Reference .......................................................................................................493 Working with Gnome 51The Gnome Desktop Environment ..............................................................52Gnome: The GNU Network Object Model Environment...................52Eye Candy for the Masses.............................................................................54Basic X Concepts...........................................................................................55Using X..........................................................................................................56Elements of the xorg.conf File ............................................................57Configuring X......................................................................................62Starting X ......................................................................................................64Using a Display Manager.....................................................................65Changing Window Managers..............................................................73KDE–The Other Environment.....................................................................77XFce...............................................................................................................78Reference .......................................................................................................784 Command Line Quickstart 79What Is the Command Line? .......................................................................79Navigating Through the File System...................................................83Managing Files with the Shell.............................................................85Working with Compressed Files..........................................................86Use Essential Commands from the /bin and /sbin Directories ..........87Use and Edit Files in the /etc Directory ..............................................87Protect the Contents of User Directories–/home ..............................87Use the Contents of the /proc Directory to Interactwith the Kernel..................................................................................87Work with Shared Data in the /usr Directory.....................................89Temporary File Storage in the /tmp Directory....................................89Access Variable Data Files in the /var Directory .................................89Logging In to and Working with Linux .......................................................90Text-based Console Login....................................................................90Logging Out.........................................................................................90Logging In and Out from a Remote Computer ..................................91Using Environment Variables..............................................................92Using the Text Editors ..................................................................................95Working with vi...................................................................................96Working with emacs............................................................................97Working with Permissions............................................................................99Assigning Permissions .......................................................................100Directory Permissions........................................................................101Understanding Set User ID and Set Group ID Permissions..............103Working as Root..........................................................................................104Creating Users....................................................................................105Deleting Users....................................................................................106Shutting Down the System ...............................................................106Rebooting the System........................................................................107Reading Documentation.............................................................................108Using Man Pages................................................................................108Reference .....................................................................................................110Part II Desktop Ubuntu5 On the Internet 113Getting Started with Firefox .......................................................................114Choosing an Email Client ..........................................................................115Evolution ...........................................................................................116Mozilla Thunderbird..........................................................................118KMail..................................................................................................120Other Mail Clients.............................................................................120RSS Readers..................................................................................................120Firefox ................................................................................................122Liferea.................................................................................................122Instant Messaging with Pidgin ...................................................................123Internet Relay Chat.....................................................................................124Usenet Network Newsgroups......................................................................127The Pan News Client Newsreader...............................................................128Videoconferencing with Ekiga....................................................................130Reference .....................................................................................................1326 Productivity Applications 133Introducing OpenOffice.org .......................................................................134Configuring OpenOffice.org .............................................................136Working with OpenOffice.org Writer ...............................................137Working with OpenOffice.org Calc...................................................140Office Suites for Ubuntu .............................................................................144Working with Gnome Office.............................................................146Working with KOffice........................................................................149Productivity Applications Written for Microsoft Windows.......................150Reference .....................................................................................................1527 Multimedia Applications 153Sound and Music ........................................................................................153Sound Cards.......................................................................................154Adjusting Volume..............................................................................155Sound Formats...................................................................................156Listening to Music .............................................................................157Graphics Manipulation...............................................................................163The GNU Image Manipulation Program...........................................163Using Scanners in Ubuntu ................................................................164Working with Graphics Formats .......................................................166Capturing Screen Images...................................................................168Using Digital Cameras with Ubuntu ..........................................................168Handheld Digital Cameras ................................................................168Using F-Spot.......................................................................................169Burning CDs and DVDs in Ubuntu............................................................170Creating CDs and DVDs with Ubuntu’s Graphical Clients..............172Creating CDs from the Command Line ...........................................174Creating DVDs from the Command Line.........................................176Viewing Video.............................................................................................178TV and Video Hardware ....................................................................178Video Formats....................................................................................180Viewing Video in Linux.....................................................................181Personal Video Recorders ..................................................................181DVD and Video Players .....................................................................182Reference .....................................................................................................1828 Printing with Ubuntu 185Overview of Ubuntu Printing.....................................................................185Configuring and Managing Print Services .................................................187GUI-Based Printer Configuration Quickstart ....................................187Managing Printing Services ...............................................................188Creating and Configuring Local Printers ...................................................189Creating the Print Queue ..................................................................190Editing Printer Settings......................................................................192Reference .....................................................................................................1959 Games 197Linux Gaming.............................................................................................197Installing Proprietary Video Drivers..................................................198Installing Games in Ubuntu .......................................................................199DOOM 3 ............................................................................................200Unreal Tournament 2004 ..................................................................201Quake 4..............................................................................................202Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory ...........................................................203Battle for Wesnoth.............................................................................204Playing Windows Games with Cedega.......................................................204Reference .....................................................................................................205Part III System Administration10 Managing Users 209User Accounts .............................................................................................209The Super User/Root User .................................................................210User IDs and Group IDs ....................................................................212File Permissions .................................................................................212Managing Groups .......................................................................................213Group Management Tools.................................................................214Managing Users...........................................................................................216User Management Tools ....................................................................216Adding New Users .............................................................................218Monitoring User Activity on the System ..........................................219Managing Passwords...................................................................................220System Password Policy .....................................................................220The Password File ..............................................................................220Shadow Passwords .............................................................................221Managing Password Security for Users..............................................223Changing Passwords in a Batch ........................................................224Granting System Administrator Privileges to Regular Users......................224Temporarily Changing User Identity with the su Command ..........225Granting Root Privileges on Occasion–The sudo Command .........227Disk Quotas.................................................................................................229Implementing Quotas .......................................................................230Manually Configuring Quotas ..........................................................230Reference .....................................................................................................23211 Automating Tasks 233Running Services at Bootup........................................................................234Beginning the Boot Loading Process..........................................................234Loading the Linux Kernel..................................................................235System Services and Runlevels ..........................................................236Runlevel Definitions..........................................................................236Booting into the Default Runlevel ....................................................237Booting to a Non-Default Runlevel with GRUB ...............................237Understanding init Scripts and the Final Stage of Initialization......238Controlling Services at Boot with Administrative Tools ..................239Changing Runlevels...........................................................................240Troubleshooting Runlevel Problems .................................................240Starting and Stopping Services Manually...................................................241Scheduling Tasks .........................................................................................242Using at and batch to Schedule Tasks for Later................................242Using cron to Run Jobs Repeatedly...................................................245Basic Shell Control......................................................................................248The Shell Command Line .................................................................248Shell Pattern-Matching Support........................................................250Redirecting Input and Output...........................................................251Piping Data ........................................................................................252Background Processing ......................................................................252Writing and Executing a Shell Script..........................................................253Running the New Shell Program.......................................................254Storing Shell Scripts for Systemwide Access......................................255Interpreting Shell Scripts Through Specific Shells............................256Using Variables in Shell Scripts .........................................................258Assigning a Value to a Variable .........................................................258Accessing Variable Values ..................................................................259Positional Parameters ........................................................................259A Simple Example of a Positional Parameter....................................259Using Positional Parameters to Access and RetrieveVariables from the Command Line ................................................260Using a Simple Script to Automate Tasks..........................................261Built-In Variables ...............................................................................263Special Characters..............................................................................263Use Double Quotes to Resolve Variables in Strings withEmbedded Spaces ............................................................................264Using Single Quotes to Maintain Unexpanded Variables ................265Using the Backslash as an Escape Character.....................................266Using the Backtick to Replace a String with Output ........................266Comparison of Expressions in pdksh and bash................................26700_1091_fm.Comparing Expressions with tcsh.....................................................272The for Statement ..............................................................................276The while Statement..........................................................................277The until Statement...........................................................................279The repeat Statement (tcsh) ..............................................................280The select Statement (pdksh) ............................................................280The shift Statement ...........................................................................281The if Statement ................................................................................281The case Statement ............................................................................283The break and exit Statements..........................................................285Using Functions in Shell Scripts........................................................285Reference .....................................................................................................28712 System-Monitoring Tools 289Console-Based Monitoring .........................................................................289Using the kill Command to Control Processes.................................291Using Priority Scheduling and Control.............................................292Displaying Free and Used Memory with free ...................................294Disk Space ..........................................................................................295Disk Quotas........................................................................................296Graphical Process and System Management Tools ....................................296KDE Process- and System-Monitoring Tools ..............................................298Reference .....................................................................................................29913 Backing Up 301Choosing a Backup Strategy .......................................................................301Why Data Loss Occurs.......................................................................302Assessing Your Backup Needs and Resources ....................................303Evaluating Backup Strategies.............................................................304Making the Choice ............................................................................307Choosing Backup Hardware and Media .....................................................307Removable Storage Media .................................................................308Network Storage.................................................................................309Tape Drive Backup .............................................................................309Using Backup Software ...............................................................................310tar: The Most Basic Backup Tool .......................................................310The GNOME File Roller .....................................................................312Using the Amanda Backup Application............................................315Alternative Backup Software..............................................................316Copying Files...............................................................................................316Copying Files Using tar .....................................................................317Compressing, Encrypting, and Sending tar Streams ........................317Copying Files Using cp......................................................................318Copying Files Using mc.....................................................................318System Rescue .............................................................................................319The Ubuntu Rescue Disc....................................................................320Backing Up and Restoring the Master Boot Record..........................320Booting the System from a Generic Boot Floppy .............................320Using a GRUB Boot Floppy ...............................................................321Using the Recovery Facility ...............................................................322Reference .....................................................................................................32214 Networking 325Laying the Foundation: The localhost Interface........................................326Checking for the Availability of the Loopback Interface .................326Configuring the Loopback Interface Manually ................................326Networking with TCP/IP.............................................................................328TCP/IP Addressing .............................................................................329Using IP Masquerading in Ubuntu ...................................................331Ports ...................................................................................................332Network Organization ................................................................................333Subnetting..........................................................................................333Subnet Masks .....................................................................................334Broadcast, Unicast, and Multicast Addressing ..................................334Hardware Devices for Networking..............................................................335Network Interface Cards....................................................................335Network Cable ...................................................................................337Hubs and Switches.............................................................................338Routers and Bridges ...........................................................................339Initializing New Network Hardware..................................................339Using Network Configuration Tools...........................................................342Command-Line Network Interface Configuration ...........................342Network Configuration Files .............................................................347Using Graphical Configuration Tools ...............................................349Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol ......................................................351How DHCP Works .............................................................................351Activating DHCP at Installation and Boot Time ..............................352DHCP Software Installation and Configuration ...............................353Using DHCP to Configure Network Hosts........................................354Other Uses for DHCP.........................................................................357Wireless Networking ...................................................................................357Support for Wireless Networking in Ubuntu ....................................357Advantages of Wireless Networking..................................................358Choosing from Among Available Wireless Protocols .......................359Beyond the Network and onto the Internet ..............................................360Common Configuration Information........................................................360Configuring Digital Subscriber Line Access................................................362Understanding Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet.....................363Configuring a PPPoE Connection Manually.....................................363Configuring Dial-Up Internet Access .........................................................365Configuring a Dial-Up Connection Manually..................................365Troubleshooting Connection Problems .....................................................368Reference .....................................................................................................36915 Remote Access with SSH and Telnet 371Setting Up a Telnet Server...........................................................................371Telnet Versus SSH........................................................................................372Setting Up an SSH Server ............................................................................372The SSH Tools..............................................................................................373Using scp to Copy Individual Files Between Machines....................374Using sftp to Copy Many Files Between Machines ..........................374Using ssh-keygen to Enable Key-based Logins..................................375Remote X.....................................................................................................377XDMCP..............................................................................................377VNC....................................................................................................378Reference .....................................................................................................378Part IV Ubuntu as a Server16 File and Print 381Using the Network File System...................................................................382Installing and Starting or Stopping NFS ...........................................382NFS Server Configuration..................................................................383NFS Client Configuration..................................................................384Putting Samba to Work...............................................................................385Manually Configuring Samba with /etc/samba/smb.conf................387Testing Samba with the testparm Command ...................................390Starting the smbd Daemon ...............................................................390Mounting Samba Shares....................................................................391Configuring Samba Using SWAT.......................................................392Network and Remote Printing with Ubuntu..............................................397Creating Network Printers ..........................................................................397Enabling Network Printing on a LAN ...............................................397Session Message Block Printing.........................................................398Using the Common UNIX Printing System GUI .......................................399Creating a CUPS Printer Entry ..........................................................400Avoiding Printer Support Problems............................................................403All-in-One (Print/Fax/Scan) Devices .................................................403Using USB and Legacy Printers .........................................................403Reference .....................................................................................................40517 Apache Web Server Management 407About the Apache Web Server ....................................................................407Installing the Apache Server.......................................................................409Installing with APT............................................................................409Building the Source Yourself .............................................................410Starting and Stopping Apache ....................................................................413Starting the Apache Server Manually................................................413Using /etc/init.d/apache2..................................................................414Runtime Server Configuration Settings......................................................416Runtime Configuration Directives ....................................................416Editing apache2.conf.........................................................................417Apache Multiprocessing Modules .....................................................419Using .htaccess Configuration Files ..................................................420File System Authentication and Access Control ........................................422Restricting Access with allow and deny............................................422Authentication...................................................................................423Final Words on Access Control .........................................................425Apache Modules..........................................................................................426mod_access ........................................................................................427mod_alias ...........................................................................................427mod_asis ............................................................................................427mod_auth...........................................................................................428mod_auth_anon.................................................................................428mod_auth_dbm .................................................................................428mod_auth_digest ...............................................................................428mod_autoindex..................................................................................429mod_cgi..............................................................................................429mod_dir and mod_env ......................................................................429mod_expires.......................................................................................429mod_headers......................................................................................429mod_include ......................................................................................429mod_info and mod_log_config .........................................................430mod_mime and mod_mime_magic ..................................................430mod_negotiation ...............................................................................430mod_proxy.........................................................................................430mod_rewrite.......................................................................................430mod_setenvif .....................................................................................430mod_speling.......................................................................................431mod_status.........................................................................................431mod_ssl ..............................................................................................431mod_unique_id..................................................................................431mod_userdir .......................................................................................431mod_usertrack....................................................................................431mod_vhost_alias ................................................................................431Virtual Hosting............................................................................................432Address-Based Virtual Hosts ..............................................................432Name-Based Virtual Hosts .................................................................432Logging........................................................................................................434Other Web Servers for Use with Ubuntu....................................................435Sun ONE Web Server .........................................................................436Zope ...................................................................................................436Zeus Web Server.................................................................................436Reference .....................................................................................................43718 Remote File Serving with FTP 439Choosing an FTP Server..............................................................................439Choosing an Authenticated or Anonymous Server ..........................440Ubuntu FTP Server Packages .............................................................440Other FTP Servers ..............................................................................440Installing FTP Software ...............................................................................441The FTP User ...............................................................................................442inetd Configuration for wu-ftpd ................................................................444Starting the Very Secure FTP Server (vsftpd) Package.......................445Configuring the Very Secure FTP Server.....................................................445Controlling Anonymous Access........................................................445Other vsftpd Server Configuration Files ...........................................446Configuring the Server ...............................................................................448Using Commands in the ftpaccess File to Configure wu-ftpd...................448Configure Access Control..................................................................449Configure User Information..............................................................452Configure System Logging ................................................................456Configure Permission Control ..........................................................457Configure Commands Directed Toward the cdpath.........................459Structure of the shutdown File..........................................................460Configuring FTP Server File-Conversion Actions.......................................460Strip Prefix .........................................................................................461Strip Postfix........................................................................................461Add-On Prefix ....................................................................................461Add-On Postfix ..................................................................................461External Command ...........................................................................461An Example of Conversions in Action..............................................462Using the ftphosts File to Allow or Deny FTP Server Connection ............463Using Commands for Server Administration.............................................464Display Information About Connected Users...................................464Count the Number of Connections..................................................465Use /usr/sbin/ftpshut to Schedule FTP Server Downtime ................466Use /var/log/xferlog to View a Log of Server Transactions...............467Reference .....................................................................................................47019 Handling Electronic Mail 471How Email Is Sent and Received ................................................................471The Mail Transport Agent..................................................................472Choosing an MTA..............................................................................474The Mail Delivery Agent ...................................................................474The Mail User Agent..........................................................................475Basic Postfix Configuration and Operation ...............................................476Configuring Masquerading ...............................................................477Using Smart Hosts .............................................................................477Setting Message Delivery Intervals....................................................477Mail Relaying .....................................................................................478Forwarding Email with Aliases ..........................................................478Using Fetchmail to Retrieve Mail ...............................................................479Installing Fetchmail...........................................................................479Configuring Fetchmail ......................................................................480Choosing a Mail Delivery Agent ................................................................483Procmail .............................................................................................483Spamassassin......................................................................................484Squirrelmail........................................................................................484Virus Scanners....................................................................................484Mail Daemons.............................................................................................485Alternatives to Microsoft Exchange Server.................................................485Microsoft Exchange Server/Outlook Client ......................................486CommuniGate Pro.............................................................................486Oracle Collaboration Suite ................................................................486Bynari.................................................................................................486Open-Xchange...................................................................................486phpgroupware....................................................................................487PHProjekt ...........................................................................................487Horde .................................................................................................487Reference .....................................................................................................48820 Proxying and Reverse Proxying 489What Is a Proxy Server? ..............................................................................489Installing Squid ...........................................................................................490Configuring Clients ....................................................................................490Access Control Lists ....................................................................................491Specifying Client IP Addresses....................................................................495Example Configurations .............................................................................496Reference .....................................................................................................49821 Administering Database Services 499A Brief Review of Database Basics ..............................................................500How Relational Databases Work .......................................................501Understanding SQL Basics.................................................................503Creating Tables ..................................................................................503Inserting Data into Tables .................................................................504Retrieving Data from a Database.......................................................505Choosing a Database: MySQL Versus PostgreSQL......................................507Speed..................................................................................................507Data Locking......................................................................................508ACID Compliance in Transaction Processingto Protect Data Integrity .................................................................509SQL Subqueries ..................................................................................509Procedural Languages and Triggers ...................................................510Configuring MySQL....................................................................................510Setting a Password for the MySQL Root User ...................................511Creating a Database in MySQL .........................................................511Granting and Revoking Privileges in MySQL ...................................512Configuring PostgreSQL .............................................................................513Initializing the Data Directory in PostgreSQL ..................................514Creating a Database in PostgreSQL ...................................................515Creating Database Users in PostgreSQL ............................................516Deleting Database Users in PostgreSQL ............................................517Granting and Revoking Privileges in PostgreSQL .............................517Database Clients..........................................................................................518SSH Access to a Database...................................................................518Local GUI Client Access to a Database .............................................520Web Access to a Database..................................................................520The MySQL Command-Line Client ..................................................521The PostgreSQL Command-Line Client............................................523Graphical Clients...............................................................................523Reference .....................................................................................................52422 LDAP 525Configuring the Server ...............................................................................526Populating Your Directory.................................................................528Configuring Clients ....................................................................................530Evolution ...........................................................................................531Thunderbird.......................................................................................532Administration............................................................................................532Reference .....................................................................................................533Part V Programming Linux23 Using Perl 537Using Perl with Linux.................................................................................537Perl Versions ......................................................................................538A Simple Perl Program.......................................................................538Perl Variables and Data Structures..............................................................540Perl Variable Types.............................................................................540Special Variables.................................................................................541Operators.....................................................................................................542Comparison Operators ......................................................................542Compound Operators........................................................................543Arithmetic Operators.........................................................................544Other Operators.................................................................................544Special String Constants ....................................................................545Conditional Statements: if/else and unless................................................545if .........................................................................................................546unless .................................................................................................546Looping .......................................................................................................547for.......................................................................................................547foreach ...............................................................................................547while ..................................................................................................548until ...................................................................................................548last and next ......................................................................................548do ... while and do ... until ...............................................................549Regular Expressions.....................................................................................549Access to the Shell ......................................................................................550Modules and CPAN.....................................................................................551Code Examples............................................................................................552Sending Mail......................................................................................552Purging Logs ......................................................................................554Posting to Usenet...............................................................................555One-Liners .........................................................................................556Command-Line Processing................................................................556Reference .....................................................................................................55724 Working with Python 561Python on Linux.........................................................................................561Getting Interactive.............................................................................562The Basics of Python...................................................................................563Numbers.............................................................................................563More on Strings .................................................................................564Lists ....................................................................................................567Dictionaries........................................................................................569Conditionals and Looping ................................................................570Functions.....................................................................................................572Object Orientation......................................................................................573Class and Object Variables ................................................................574Constructors and Destructors............................................................575Class Inheritance ...............................................................................575The Standard Library and the Vaults of Parnassus ....................................577Reference .....................................................................................................57725 Writing PHP Scripts 579Introduction to PHP ...................................................................................580Entering and Exiting PHP Mode .......................................................580Variables.............................................................................................580Arrays .................................................................................................582Constants...........................................................................................584References ..........................................................................................584Comments .........................................................................................585Escape Sequences ...............................................................................585Variable Substitution .........................................................................587Operators ...........................................................................................587Conditional Statements.....................................................................589Special Operators ...............................................................................591Switching ...........................................................................................592Loops..................................................................................................593Including Other Files.........................................................................596Basic Functions ...........................................................................................596Strings ................................................................................................596Arrays .................................................................................................600Files ....................................................................................................602Miscellaneous.....................................................................................604Handling HTML Forms ...............................................................................607Databases.....................................................................................................608Introduction to PEAR::DB .................................................................608Reference .....................................................................................................61026 C/C++ Programming Tools for Ubuntu 613Programming in C with Linux ...................................................................613Using the C Programming Project Management ToolsProvided with Ubuntu..............................................................................614Building Programs with make ...........................................................615Using Makefiles..................................................................................615Using the autoconf Utility to Configure Code .................................617Managing Software Projects with Subversion...................................617Debugging Tools ................................................................................618Using the GNU C Compiler .......................................................................619Graphical Development Tools ....................................................................620Using the KDevelop Client................................................................620The Glade Client for Developing in GNOME...................................621Reference .....................................................................................................62327 Mono 625Why Use Mono? .........................................................................................625Mono on the Command Line ....................................................................626The Structure of a C# Program..........................................................628Printing Out the Parameters..............................................................629Creating Your Own Variables ............................................................629Adding Some Error Checking............................................................630Building on Mono’s Libraries .....................................................................631Searching with Beagle........................................................................631Creating a GUI with Gtk# .................................................................634Reference .....................................................................................................636Part VI Ubuntu Housekeeping28 Securing Your Machines 639Understanding Computer Attacks..............................................................639Assessing Your Vulnerability.......................................................................641Protecting Your Machine ............................................................................642Securing a Wireless Network .............................................................642Passwords and Physical Security .......................................................643Configuring and Using Tripwire .......................................................644Devices ...............................................................................................645Viruses .........................................................................................................645Configuring Your Firewall...........................................................................646Forming a Disaster Recovery Plan ..............................................................647Keeping Up-to-Date on Linux Security Issues............................................648Reference .....................................................................................................64929 Performance Tuning 651Hard Disk ....................................................................................................651Using the BIOS and Kernel to Tune the Disk Drives ........................652The hdparm Command.....................................................................653File System Tuning ............................................................................654The tune2fs Command......................................................................654The e2fsck Command........................................................................655The badblocks Command .................................................................655Disabling File Access Time.................................................................655Kernel ..........................................................................................................655Apache.........................................................................................................656MySQL.........................................................................................................658Measuring Key Buffer Usage..............................................................658Using the Query Cache .....................................................................660Miscellaneous Tweaks........................................................................661Query Optimization ..........................................................................661Reference .....................................................................................................66230 Command Line Masterclass 663Why Use the Shell?.....................................................................................664Basic Commands.........................................................................................665Printing the Contents of a File with cat ...........................................666Changing Directories with cd ...........................................................667Changing File Access Permissions with chmod................................668Copying Files with cp........................................................................669Printing Disk Usage with du .............................................................669Finding Files by Searching with find ................................................670Searches for a String in Input with grep ...........................................673Paging Through Output with less .....................................................674Creating Links Between Files with ln................................................676Finding Files from an Index with locate...........................................677Listing Files in the Current Directory with ls ...................................678Reading Manual Pages with man......................................................679Making Directories with mkdir .........................................................680Moving Files with mv........................................................................680Listing Processes with ps ...................................................................680Deleting Files and Directories with rm .............................................681Printing the Last Lines of a File with tail..........................................682Printing Resource Usage with top .....................................................682Printing the Location of a Command with which...........................684Combining Commands ..............................................................................684Multiple Terminals......................................................................................686Reference .....................................................................................................68731 Managing Software 689Using Add/Remove Applications for Software Management.....................689Using Synaptic for Software Management .................................................691Staying Up-to-Date......................................................................................693Working on the Command Line ................................................................694Day-to-Day Usage ..............................................................................694Finding Software................................................................................697Compiling Software from Source ...............................................................698Reference .....................................................................................................69932 Kernel and Module Management 701The Linux Kernel ........................................................................................702The Linux Source Tree .......................................................................702Types of Kernels.................................................................................704Managing Modules ..........